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PubMed2005

Portion sizes and the obesity epidemic.

The rise in obesity rates over the past 30 y has been paralleled by increases in the portion size of many foods and the prevalence of eating away from home. Foods of particular concern are those that have a high energy density (kJ/g). Many well-controlled, laboratory-based studies have found that large portions of energy-dense foods can lead to excess energy intakes. This influence of large portions on energy intake has been supported by data collected in naturalistic settings. Further research is needed to explore strategies that can be used to moderate the effects of portion size on food consumption. One promising strategy is to reduce the energy density of foods, while maintaining food weight or volume, so that consumers can eat satisfying portions while reducing their energy intakes. There is a need for effective educational messages that not only emphasize limiting the consumption of foods high in energy density, but also encourage the consumption of those with a low energy density, such as fruits and vegetables. The delivery of consistent messages will require more cooperation among the food and restaurant industries, policy makers, and scientists. Effective strategies will also require consumers to understand and accept the importance of eating reasonable portions for better health.

Body Mass Index↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Intake of nutrients related to cardiovascular disease risk among three groups of American Indians: the Strong Heart Dietary Study.

BACKGROUND: Although diet is implicated in the elevated rate of cardiovascular disease among some American Indian tribes, the dietary intakes of these individuals have not been described. The Strong Heart Dietary Study compared diets of 10 tribes in Arizona, Oklahoma, and the Dakotas to examine the possible contribution of diet to cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. METHODS: During 1988-1991, 892 people responded to a 24 hr diet recall questionnaire. Nutrient intake by study area, sex, and age group were compared by analysis of variance, and intakes were compared with nutrient intakes reported by participants in Phase 1 of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and with dietary recommendations of the National Research Council, the American Heart Association, and the Healthy People 2000 objectives. RESULTS: The intake of energy and nutrients varied significantly by sex and age. Men consumed more energy, macronutrients, and sodium than did women (P < or = 0.001). Women's diets were denser in carbohydrate, beta-carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E than were men's diets (P < or = 0.001). Younger participants consumed more energy, macronutrients, vitamin E, and sodium than did older participants (P < or = 0.001). Older participants had diets denser in protein and beta-carotene than did younger participants (P < or = 0.001). Energy intake did not differ significantly by study area, but men in Arizona consumed more energy from carbohydrate and less energy from total fat than did men elsewhere (P < or = 0.01). Men and women in Arizona consumed more cholesterol and fiber than did other participants (P < or = 0.01) and less of the antioxidant vitamins (P < or = 0.01). Participants in the Strong Heart Diet Study reported diets higher in fats and cholesterol than did participants in Phase 1 of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Few Strong Heart participants achieved dietary recommendations for the reduction of risk of chronic disease. CONCLUSIONS: Area differences in nutrient intake were observed, but most participants consumed diets associated with increased risk of heart disease and other chronic diseases. Women and older participants in general reported healthier nutrient intakes. Dietary intervention programs should educate American Indians about dietary modifications to reduce the risk of cardiovascular and other nutrition-related disorders.

Age Distribution↗

PubMed1988

Daily caloric intake of normal-weight adults: response to changes in dietary energy density of a luncheon meal.

The extent and time course of caloric compensation for surreptitious dilutions and supplements to the energy value of the diet were examined in free-living normal-weight adults. Ten subjects were provided lunches containing approximately 66% more or less calories than their customary midday meal for 2-wk periods which were interposed between 1-wk baseline or recovery periods. Diet records were kept throughout the study. Total energy intakes did not differ among the three control periods (weeks 1, 4, and 7) or between any of these periods and when subjects were provided the low-calorie meal. Total energy intake was significantly higher relative to all other periods when subjects ingested the high-calorie meal. To the extent that compensation occurred, it was apparent immediately and did not appear to change over the 2-wk study periods. The results suggest that humans compensate more readily for decreases than for increases in caloric intake.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Effects of acute and chronic relaxin-3 on food intake and energy expenditure in rats.

The effects of acute and repeated intraparaventricular (iPVN) administration of human relaxin-3 (H3) were examined on food intake, energy expenditure, and the hypothalamo-pituitary thyroid axis in male Wistar rats. An acute high dose iPVN injection of H3 significantly increased food intake 1 h post-administration [0.4+/-0.1 g (vehicle) vs 1.6+/-0.5 g (180 pmol H3), 2.4+/-0.5 g (540 pmol H3) and 2.2+/-0.5 g (1,620 pmol H3), p<0.05 for all doses vs vehicle]. Repeated iPVN H3 injection (180 pmol/twice a day for 7 days) significantly increased cumulative food intake in ad libitum fed animals compared with vehicle [211.8+/-7.1 g (vehicle) vs 261.6+/-6.7 g (ad libitum fed H3), p<0.05]. Plasma leptin was increased in the H3 ad libitum fed group. Plasma thyroid stimulating hormone was significantly decreased after acute and repeated administration of H3. These data suggest H3 may play a role in long-term control of food intake.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed1997

Characteristics of the low-energy reporters in a longitudinal national dietary survey.

The aim of the present study was to establish whether the characteristics of members of a large national birth cohort study who submitted diet diaries with implausibly low-energy intake differed from those whose recorded energy intake was more plausible. Survey members (n 1898) recorded their diets in a 7 d diary in household measures. Those whose reported energy intake (EI) as a fraction of their estimated BMR was less than 1.10, here termed low-energy reporters (LER) but often called under-reporters, constituted 20.6% of the study population. None of the variables describing dietary, smoking or exercise behaviour bore a significant relationship with low EI/BMR (< 1.10), neither did those describing region of residence, subjective adequacy of income, current social class, social relations or the social environment of the subjects. Results of logistic regression analysis showed that the only independently significant characteristic for men was higher BMI. In women, in addition to higher BMI, having been overweight or obese as an adult independently, but less significantly, predicted low EI/BMR, while membership as a child of social class III (non-manual), having more children in the household and having a paid job marginally but independently decreased the probability of reporting low EI/BMR. Submission of a diary with EI/BMR < 1.10 7 years earlier in the same survey was an even more powerful predictor of current low EI/BMR than higher BMI in both sexes. The average reported diet-composition of LER was more micronutrient- and protein-rich than that of the others, indicating different dietary, or diet-recording, behaviour in this group of subjects. LER are not a random sample of the survey population, and their characteristics, definable to some extent, put them at risk for lower health status. Although EI/BMR cut-off points can be used to identify LER, the problem of how to use their data is still unresolved.

Basal Metabolism↗

PubMed1997

Concern regarding bodyweight and energy balance in a group of female university students from Madrid: differences with respect to body mass index.

OBJECTIVE: There are powerful social and psychological motivators that oblige a high proportion of women to restrict their energy intake for purely aesthetic reasons. The purpose of this research was to assess the relationships between concern regarding body weight and energy balance in a group of female university students from Madrid, Spain, with respect to differences in body mass index (BMI). DESIGN: 126 subjects completed a questionnaire asking if they were happy with their body weight, if they considered themselves fat, and if they would like to lose some weight. Energy intake was measured by means of a 7-day food record. Food intake was recorded by weight, except for that consumed away from home which was recorded using traditional household quantities. A comparison of energy intake and estimated energy expenditure was performed, using equations proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO), to provide a measure of the under- or overestimation of intake. RESULTS: All subjects with BMI > or = 25 kg/m2 (6.2% of the total) described themselves as fat. 71.4% had, at some time, followed a weight-reduction diet. However, even among subjects with BMI < 20 kg/m2 (28.4% of the total), 2.9% thought themselves fat and 17.1% had at some time followed a slimming diet. This shows excessive concern over losing weight in some women. Estimated energy expenditure was similar to energy intake in subjects with BMI < 20 kg/m2. However, as BMI rose (with a corresponding increase in theoretical energy expenditure), the reported energy intake decreased. It is therefore likely that underestimation of energy intake increased with BMI (r = 0.4498). CONCLUSION: These results indicate that a large percentage of the women studied would like to lose weight until they reach, or indeed exceed, the lower limit of the acceptable normal range. This could be a danger to their health. Underestimation of energy intake was found to increase with BMI, a phenomenon that should be kept in mind when designing diet studies.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

A comparison of nutrient intake between infants and toddlers with and without cystic fibrosis.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the micronutrient and energy intake of infants and toddlers with cystic fibrosis (CF) to the intake of matched control children and dietary reference index (DRI) levels. DESIGN: A two-group comparison study. Nutrient and energy intakes were measured via 3-day diet diaries. Anthropometric data were collected within 1 week of study enrollment. SUBJECTS/SETTING: A clinical sample of 35 infants and toddlers with CF (mean=18.6, SD=8.1 months) matched to a community sample of 34 healthy controls. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Children with CF and controls were compared on anthropometric and nutrient data using independent sample t tests. Mean nutrient and energy intake for children in each group were compared with the age-appropriate DRI for targeted nutrients using percentages. RESULTS: Children with CF and controls were similar on measures of growth (height, weight, or weight-for-height percentile). Four children with CF were at or below the 10th percentile for weight-for-height, compared with one control child. Children with CF and controls did not differ on average daily protein, calcium, zinc, and energy intake. Overall, children met or exceeded DRI levels for nutrient intakes. A notable exception was iron, for which mean intakes were lower for control children. Toddlers with CF consumed only 89% of the RDA per day for energy. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Infants and toddlers with CF are likely obtaining adequate micronutrient intakes from food. Interventions to increase total energy intake in infants and toddlers with CF are needed. Dietitians may want to focus more on calorie intake and percent calories from fat than on micronutrient intake in their nutrition counseling in young children with CF.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed1998

Sucrose intake in Germany.

The present investigation reevaluated the German National Food Consumption Survey in order to obtain data on sucrose intake and food sources of sucrose intake in Germany. Moreover, it focused on the effect of sucrose intake on nutrient intake. By means of the food composition data base Bundeslebensmittelschlüssel, version II.2, 7-days dietary records of a representative sample of 15,838 persons aged 4 years and older were analyzed. The relation between sucrose and nutrients intake was investigated by variance and regression analyses. Low, moderate, and high sucrose intake categories were defined by means of sucrose density quartiles and comparisons were made for the percentages of persons meeting the German nutrient intake recommendations. Mean daily sucrose intake ranges between 43.2 g/d (f, 51-64 years) and 82.3 g/d (m, 13-14 years). The mean contribution of sucrose to total energy intake is highest with 14% in young age (4-6 years) and decreases to 9% and 7% in 51-64 year old women and men, respectively. The food groups "table sugar", "confectionery and ice cream", "biscuits, cake and pastries", "preserves", "dairy products", and "non-alcoholic beverages" are the main sucrose sources with varying importance in different age groups. The average amount of naturally occurring sucrose in the Germans' diet is estimated to 15-25% of total sucrose intake. Sucrose contributes 80-90% to total disaccharides intake in Germany. With each gram of sucrose the intake of energy rises on the average by 12.5 kcal (52.4 kJ), of protein by 0.3 g (9% of the energy increase), of fat by 0.5 g (34%), and of carbohydrates by 1.8 g (57%). Consequently, the higher the sucrose content of a diet, the lower is the contribution of fat to total energy intake. In contrast, the energy-adjusted effect of sucrose was found to be negative for energy-providing nutrients (except mono- and disaccharides) as well as for all the selected micronutrients, except calcium, vitamin E, vitamin C, and dietary fiber. Accordingly, the comparison between moderate and high sucrose consumers revealed a lower percentage of persons meeting nutrient intake recommendations in the high sucrose category under the condition of a comparable energy intake. This unfavorable effect of high sucrose intake is most prominent in 4-6 year old boys and girls as the groups with the highest sucrose intake. Since from the present data no exact figure for a sucrose or sugars intake recommendation can be deduced, it is suggested to keep on the WHO recommendation for a moderate sugar intake of 10% of energy intake.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Dilutions of low- vs. high-fat diets on intakes and gastric volumes in rats.

Rats adapt to changes in dietary energy to maintain nearly constant energy intakes. This regulation indicates that animals sense and respond to nutrient content. We sought to determine whether this response was affected by the fat content of the diet. Our second goal was to determine how energy dilution affected intragastric volumes. Rats were randomized to high (18% w/w) and low fat (4.5% w/w) as the energy density of the diet was altered from 2.0 to 3.5 kcal/g. Average energy intake during 7-h feeds rose steeply (P<.01) when density was increased from 2.0 to 3.0 kcal/g, but modestly as density increased from 3.0 to 3.5 kcal/g. In other rats on 18% vs. 32% fat diets, energy intakes increased significantly (P<.01) as density of the diet was raised from 3.5 to 4.5 kcal/g. During diets at 2.0 and 2.5 kcal/g, animals on 18% fat ate fewer kilocalories than those on 4.5% fat; but over 3.0-4.5 kcal/g, energy intake was similar regardless of fat concentration (4.5-32%). Gastric contents after 7-h feeds increased with grams of food ingested similarly for high- and low-fat diets. We concluded that in rats: (a) compensation to energy dilution or concentration was inexact but (b) was about equal for high- vs. low-fat diets; thus, high fat was as well sensed as high carbohydrate; (c) compensations for energy densities were made despite varied gastric volumes; thus, rats learned to override the stimulus of gastric stretch and to sense energy via extra gastric mechanisms.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

What are the key food groups to target for preventing obesity and improving nutrition in schools?

OBJECTIVE: To determine differences in the contribution of foods and beverages to energy consumed in and out of school, and to compare consumption patterns between school canteen users and noncanteen users. DESIGN: Cross-sectional National Nutrition Survey, 1995. SETTING: Australia. SUBJECTS ON SCHOOL DAYS: A total of 1656 children aged 5-15 y who had weekday 24-h dietary recall data. RESULTS: An average of 37% of total energy intake was consumed at school. Energy-dense foods and beverages such as fat spreads, packaged snacks, biscuits and fruit/cordial drinks made a greater contribution to energy intake at school compared to out of school (P< or =0.01). Fast foods and soft drinks contributed 11 and 3% of total energy intake; however, these food groups were mostly consumed out of school. Fruit intake was low and consumption was greater in school. In all, 14% of children purchased food from the canteen and they obtained more energy from fast food, packaged snacks, desserts, milk and confectionary (P< or =0.05) than noncanteen users. CONCLUSIONS: : Energy-dense foods and beverages are over-represented in the Australian school environment. To help prevent obesity and improve nutrition in schools, biscuits, snack bars and fruit/cordial drinks brought from home and fast food, packaged snacks, and confectionary sold at canteens should be replaced with fruit and water.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Decreased fat mass in interleukin-1 receptor antagonist-deficient mice: impact on adipogenesis, food intake, and energy expenditure.

Interleukin (IL)-1 is a regulator of inflammation but is also implicated in the control of energy homeostasis. Because the soluble IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) is markedly increased in the serum of obese patients and is overexpressed in white adipose tissue in obesity, we studied the metabolic consequences of genetic IL-1Ra ablation in mice. We have shown that IL-1Ra-/- mice have a lean phenotype due to decreased fat mass, related to a defect in adipogenesis and increased energy expenditure. The adipocytes were smaller in these animals, and the expression of genes involved in adipogenesis was reduced. Energy expenditure as measured by indirect calorimetry was elevated, and weight loss in response to a 24-h fast was increased in IL-1Ra-/- animals compared with wild-type mice. Lipid oxidation of IL-1Ra-/- mice was higher during the light period, reflecting their reduction in diurnal food intake. Interestingly, IL-1Ra-/- and IL-1Ra+/- mice presented an attenuation in high-fat diet-induced caloric hyperphagia, indicating a better adaptation to hypercaloric alimentation, which is in line with the role of IL-1Ra as a mediator of leptin resistance. Taken together, we show that IL-1Ra is an important regulator of adipogenesis, food intake, and energy expenditure.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1989

Metabolic rate and energy balance in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia.

To determine energy use and growth of infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), we studied metabolic rate and energy balance in five infants with stage III-IV BPD (birth weight 1309 +/- 530 gm, gestational age 32 +/- 3 weeks, postnatal age 59.8 +/- 14.2 days) and in five control infants (birth weight 1540 +/- 213 gm, gestational age 33 +/- 2 weeks, postnatal age 42.0 +/- 4.2 days). Infants with BPD had significantly lower energy intake but higher energy expenditure than did control infants. Weight gain and energy cost of growth were significantly less in BPD infants than in control infants, as were urine output and output/intake ratio. We conclude that infants with BPD (1) absorbed caloric intake as well as did normal control infants, (2) had low energy intake and high energy expenditure, resulting in poor weight gain, and (3) had low energy cost of growth, suggesting an alteration in composition of tissue gain, with relatively high water content.

Body Weight↗

PubMed2001

Brain pathways controlling food intake and body weight.

Evidence has existed for more than 50 years in support of the hypothesis that body energy stored in the form of fat is homeostatically regulated. Implicit in this concept is the existence of a biological system that operates dynamically over time to match cumulative energy intake to energy expenditure. For example, to compensate for weight loss induced by energy restriction, animals must enter a period of positive energy balance (i.e., energy intake greater than energy expenditure) that is sustained for as long as it takes to correct the deficit in body fat stores. Having reached this point, the animal must return to a state of neutral energy balance if stable fat mass is to be maintained. The identification of neuronal circuits in the hypothalamus that, when activated, exert potent, unidirectional effects on energy balance provides a cornerstone of support for this model. The additional finding that these central effector pathways are regulated by humoral signals generated in proportion to body fat stores, including the hormones insulin and leptin, helps to round out the picture of how energy homeostasis is achieved. The goal of this overview is to highlight the evidence that specific subsets of hypothalamic neurons containing specific signaling molecules participate in this dynamic regulatory process, and to put these observations in the larger context of a biological system that controls body adiposity.

Body Weight↗

PubMed1996

Nutrient patterns and nutritional adequacy among French-Canadian children in Montreal.

OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: A representative sample of French Canadian Montrealers was surveyed to compile data on food habits, nutrient intakes and sociodemographic characteristics, using interviewer-administered questionnaires and 7-day food records (7D-FR). RESULTS: Complete 7D-FR and sociodemographic data were obtained from 614 adults aged 19 and over (40.1% males), and 182 children aged 5 to 18 (44.8% males). Average heights and weights of children were at the 50th percentile for both sexes and all age groups. Nutrient intakes surpassed most of the age- and sex-specific 1990 Canadian Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs). Energy intakes were 83% to 98% of the RNIs, with 16-18 year old adolescent girls having systematically lower energy consumption. Calcium was most frequently found below the 66% age-sex specific RNI cut-off. On average, protein comprised 16% of energy, fat 36-37%, and carbohydrates 48-49%, for males and females, respectively. Simple sugars comprised 16-19% of energy among boys, and 16-20% among girls, fluctuating with age. Only a small proportion of respondents (15.4%) had low relative total fat and saturated fat intakes (ranging from 30-34%, and 10-12% of energy, respectively); no differences in mean nutrient levels were found between low, medium or higher fat consumers. Among those with inadequate intakes, 26% lived in one lower middle income sector of Montreal; however, no clear pattern emerged linking dietary adequacy and socioeconomic factors. CONCLUSIONS: While Montreal youngsters consume generally adequate diets, sufficient quantities of calcium-furnishing foods must be eaten, particularly by adolescent girls. Surveillance of children's food and nutrient intakes will contribute to the reduction of chronic disease by providing data for effective health care planning.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Protein and energy: recommended intake and nutrient supplementation in chronic dialysis patients.

Nutritional status is an important predictor of clinical outcome in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients, especially in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Uremic malnutrition is strongly associated with increased risk of death and hospitalization events in this patient population, and decreased muscle mass is the most significant predictor of these outcomes. Several factors that influence protein metabolism predispose chronic hemodialysis patients to increased catabolism and loss of lean body mass. The available evidence suggests that low protein and energy intake associated with advanced uremia along with catabolic consequences of dialytic therapies can lead to the development of uremic malnutrition. Recent studies show that the hemodialysis procedure induces a net protein catabolic state at the whole-body level as well as skeletal muscle. There is evidence to suggest that these undesirable effects are due to decreased protein synthesis and increased proteolysis. Provision of nutrients, either in the form of intradialytic parenteral nutrition or oral feeding during hemodialysis, can adequately compensate for the catabolic effects of the hemodialysis procedure. While the mechanisms of these effects are not studied in detail, changes in extracellular amino acid concentrations, along with certain anabolic hormones such as insulin, are important mediators of these actions.

Dietary Proteins↗

PubMed1990

Dietary manipulation of mammary tumor development in adult C3H/Bi mice.

Chronic energy intake restriction (CEIR) in virgin female mice is one of the most effective ways of reducing significantly mammary adenocarcinoma in C3H/Bi mice, a strain which develops mammary adenocarcinoma associated with the murine mammary tumor virus spontaneously and at high incidence. In this study, the influence of chronic energy intake restriction imposed on fully mature (4- to 5-month-old), breeding female C3H/Bi mice was addressed, and the influence of energy intake where energy was derived largely from fat versus diets in which energy was derived largely from carbohydrates on tumor development and survival rate was investigated. The results show that chronic energy intake restriction can be delayed until full maturation and successful reproduction and still reduce significantly the incidence of mammary tumor development in this relatively short-lived strain of mice. Our findings demonstrate that the overriding dietary factor controlling mammary tumor development in these experiments in C3H/Bi mice was the level of energy intake, regardless of the primary source of energy (fat or carbohydrates).

Adenocarcinoma↗

PubMed1997

Energy balance and colon cancer--beyond physical activity.

Low levels of physical activity and high levels of energy intake and body mass have all been directly associated with colon cancer. The purpose of this study was to determine how physical inactivity interacts with other components of energy balance (energy intake and body mass) in determining colon cancer risk. Data were obtained from 2073 first primary cases of colon cancer and 2466 age- and sex-matched controls identified from 8 counties in Utah, the Northern California Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, and the Twin Cities metropolitan area in Minnesota. Recent and lifetime physical activity was assessed by intensity of activities performed at home, leisure, and at work; energy intake was estimated from an extensive diet history questionnaire; and body mass index (BMI) was calculated from measured height at the time of interview and reported weight for the referent year. For both men and women, lack of lifetime vigorous leisure-time activity was associated with increased risk of colon cancer [odds ratio (OR), 1.63 and 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.26-2.12 for men and OR, 1.59 and 95% CI, 1.21-2.10 for women, comparing the lowest to highest level of activity]. There were no differences in risk associated with physical activity by tumor site within the colon or by age at diagnosis. High levels of energy intake were also associated with increased risk of colon cancer in men and women (OR, 1.74 and 95% CI, 1.14-2.67 for men and OR, 1.70 and 95% CI, 1.07-2.70 for women). A large BMI was more associated with increased risk in men (OR, 1.94 and 95% CI, 1.49-2.54) than in women (OR, 1.45 and 95% CI, 1.08-1.94). Those at greatest risk of colon cancer were those who had the most unfavorable energy balance in that they were physically inactive, had high energy intakes, and had a large BMI (OR, 3.35 and 95% CI, 2.09-5.35). However, when physical activity was high, having a high energy intake and large BMI resulted in a nonsignificant increased colon cancer risk (OR, 1.28 and 95% CI, 0.81-2.03). This pattern was consistent between the sexes, but there was some evidence that men may be at higher risk than women, especially older women, as a result of unfavorable energy balance. These results support previous findings that physical inactivity, high energy intake, and large body mass are associated with increased risk of developing colon cancer. However, energy balance as a whole seems to be associated with risk of colon cancer. These findings suggest systemic metabolic influences on carcinogenesis and have important implications for prevention.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

The effect of a reduced energy diet and meal patterns on smoking and coffee drinking in women.

OBJECTIVE: We examined the effect of three feeding conditions on cigarette smoking and coffee drinking in four healthy women. We hypothesized that food deprivation and changes in meal patterns would increase rates of smoking and coffee drinking based on extensive animal literature documenting this effect. METHOD: The conditions were: normal three meals per day containing usual energy intake, one meal per day (dinner time) containing 50% of usual energy intake, and three meals per day containing 50% of usual energy intake. Each condition lasted 3 days. RESULTS: Neither reduction of energy intake nor alteration in the pattern of meals had any observable effect on number of cigarettes smoked, number of cups of coffee consumed, expired air carbon monoxide levels, or urges to smoke or drink coffee. DISCUSSION: This study adds to the growing body of literature suggesting that the food deprivation effect observed in animals does not apply readily to humans. Reasons for the absence of this effect are discussed.

Adult↗