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PubMed2004

Relation between food intake and visual analogue scale ratings of appetite and other sensations in healthy older and young subjects.

OBJECTIVE: Visual analogue scales are widely used in appetite research, yet the validity of these scales to evaluate appetite and mood has not been assessed in older subjects. The aim of this study was to determine the relations between food intake and visual analogue scale (VAS) ratings of appetite and nonappetite sensations in healthy older and young subjects. DESIGN: Retrospective combined analysis of four single-blind, randomised, controlled appetite studies. SETTING: All studies were conducted in the University of Adelaide, Department of Medicine, Adelaide, Australia. SUBJECTS: A total of 45 healthy young men (n=24) and women (n=21) aged 18-35 y and 45 healthy older men (n=24) and women (n=21) aged 65-85 y were recruited by advertisement. INTERVENTIONS: Oral, intraduodenal or intravenous administration of treatments which suppressed food intake were compared to control. Up to 90 min after treatment, a test meal was offered and subjects ate freely for between 30 and 60 min. Perceptions were assessed by 100-mm visual analogue scales administered at regular intervals. RESULTS: Food intake at the test meal was positively related to perceptions of hunger, drowsiness, and calmness at both baseline and premeal (r>0.16, P<0.05), and inversely related to premeal ratings of fullness (r> 0.2, P<0.05) in both older and young subjects. Food intake was related to VAS ratings at least as strongly, if not more so, in older as in young subjects. CONCLUSIONS: These observations (i) confirm that food intake is related to perceptions of hunger and fullness as assessed by VAS in healthy older and young subjects, and (ii) suggest that sensations, not obviously associated with appetite, including 'drowsiness' and 'calmness', are also associated with food intake.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Food insecurity is associated with dietary intake and body size of Korean children from low-income families in urban areas.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined household food insecurity of urban low-income families in Korea and the associations of the food insecurity with children's dietary intake and body size. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Low-income neighborhoods in large cities. SUBJECTS: Included 370 children aged 4-12 y, who had all records on dietary intake and anthropometry as well as household food insecurity measures. RESULTS: Using the 10-item Radimer/Cornell Scale, 62.7% of the households showed some degree of food insecurity (8.6% for food insecure for family, 28.4% for food insecure for adults and 25.7% for child hunger households). Food insecurity was linearly and negatively associated with household economic conditions as well as the caretaker's use of nutrition knowledge. There were also significant associations of food insecurity with the children's dietary intakes, indicating the largest amount of nutrients for the children from the household food insecure, followed by those from the food secure, adult food insecure and child hunger groups. The household food insecure children were fatter than the food secure children. The fatter condition of the former children appeared to be related to more frequent intakes of low-quality foods. CONCLUSION: This study reports curvilinear associations between the status of household food insecurity and children's food intakes and fatness. SPONSORSHIP: This work was funded by a grant of the 2001 Korea Health Promotion Research Program, the Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Covert manipulation of energy density of high carbohydrate diets in 'pseudo free-living' humans.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the effects of varying the energy density (ED) of high carbohydrate (HC) diets on food and energy intake (EI), subjective hunger and body weight in humans. DESIGN: Randomised cross-over design. Subjects were each studied twice during 14 d, throughout which they had ad libitum access to one of two covertly-manipulated diets. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Six healthy men (mean age (s.d.)=32.17 y s.d. (5.26 y), mean weight=69.74 kg s.d. (2.75 kg), mean height=1.76 m s.d. (0.05 m), body mass index (BMI)=22.57 (2.2) kg/m2) were studied. The fat, carbohydrate (CHO) and protein content (as % energy) and ED of each diet were 21:66:13% and 357 kJ/100 g, (low-energy density (LED)) or 22:66:12% and 629 kJ/100 g (high-energy density (HED)). A medium fat diet was provided at maintenance (1.6 x BMR, MF for 2 d) before each ad libitum period. Subjects could alter the amount, but not the composition of foods eaten. RESULTS: Mean EI was 8.67 and 14.82 MJ/d on the LED and HED diets, respectively. Subjects felt significantly more hungry on the LED diet, than on the HED diet (F(1,160)38.28; P < 0.001) and found the diets to be similarly pleasant (72.72 mm vs 71.54 mm (F(1,392)0.31; P = 0.579)). Mean body weight decreased on the LED diet at a rate of 0.1 kg/d and increased at 0.06 kg/d on the HED diet (F(1,131)86.60; P < 0.001), giving total weight changes of -1.41 kg and +0.84 kg, respectively, both of which were significantly different from zero (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Excess EI is possible on HC, HED diets, at least under conditions where diet selection is precluded. Comparison of these results with previous studies, which altered ED using fat, suggests that CHO may be a better cue for hunger than fat.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

The effect of covertly manipulating the energy density of mixed diets on ad libitum food intake in 'pseudo free-living' humans.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the effects of covert alterations in the energy density (ED) of mixed, medium fat (MF) diets on ad libitum food and energy intake (EI), subjective hunger and body weight in humans. DESIGN: Randomised cross-over design. Subjects were each studied three times (factorial design), during 14d, throughout which they had ad libitum access to one of three covertly-manipulated MF diets. SUBJECTS: Six healthy men, mean age (s.e.m.) = 30.0 y (12.76 y), mean weight = 71.67 kg (19.80 kg); mean height = 1.79 m (0.22 m), body mass index (BMI) = 22.36 (2.60) kg/m2, were studied. The fat, carbohydrate (CHO) and protein in each diet (as a proportion of the total energy) and energy density (ED) were, low-ED (LED), 38:49:13%; 373 kJ/100 g; medium-ED (MED), 40:47:13%; 549 kJ/100 g; high-ED (HED), 39:48:13%; 737 kJ/100 g. Subjects could alter the amount but not the composition of foods eaten. They were resident in (but not confined to) a metabolic suite throughout the study. RESULTS: Solid food intake decreased as ED increased, giving mean values of 2.84, 2.51 and 2.31 kg/d, respectively. This was insufficient to defend energy balance, since energy intake increased with increasing ED (F(2,10) 16.08; P < 0.001) giving mean intakes of 10.12, 12.80 and 16.17 MJ/d, respectively. Rated pleasantness of food (measured on visual analogue scales) was not significantly different between diets nor was subjective hunger different between the LED, MED and HED diets, respectively. Diet significantly affected body weight (F(2,10) = 4.62; P = 0.038), producing changes of -1.20, 0.02 and 0.95 kg, respectively, by day 14. CONCLUSION: Dietary ED can influence EI and body weight, since changes in amount eaten alone are insufficient to defend energy balance, when subjects feed on unfamiliar diets and diet selection is precluded. Comparison with our previous studies suggest that there was compensation in solid food intake when ED was altered using mixed diets (as in this study) compared to previous studies which primarily used fat or CHO to alter dietary ED.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in obese men.

BACKGROUND: Peripheral administration of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) for four hours, to normal weight and obese humans, decreases food intake and suppresses appetite. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the effect of an eight hour infusion of GLP-1 on appetite and energy intake at lunch and dinner in obese subjects. DESIGN: Randomised, blinded cross-over design with intravenous infusion of GLP-1 (0.75 pmol x kg(-1) min(-1)) or saline. SUBJECTS: Eight obese (body mass index, BMI, 45.5 +/- 2.3 kg/m2) male subjects. MEASUREMENTS: Ad libitum energy intake at lunch (12.00 h) and dinner (16.00 h) after an energy fixed breakfast (2.4 MJ) at 08.00 h. Appetite sensations using visual analogue scales, (VAS) immediately before and after meals and hourly in-between. Blood samples for the analysis of glucose, insulin, C-peptide, GLP-1 and peptide YY. Gastric emptying after breakfast and lunch using a paracetamol absorption technique. RESULTS: Hunger ratings were significantly lower with GLP-1 infusion. The summed ad libitum energy intake at lunch and dinner was reduced by 1.7 +/- 0.5 MJ (21 +/- 6%) by GLP-1 infusion (P = 0.01). Gastric emptying was delayed by GLP-1 infusion, and plasma glucose concentrations decreased (baseline: 6.6 +/- 0.35 mmol/L; nadir: 5.3 +/- 0.15 mmol/L). No nausea was recorded during GLP-1 infusion. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that GLP-1 decreases feelings of hunger and reduces energy intake in obese humans. One possible mechanism for this finding might be an increased satiety primarily mediated by gastric vagal afferent signals.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Acute appetite reduction associated with an increased frequency of eating in obese males.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of altered feeding frequencies on the relationship between perceived hunger and subsequent food intake and appetite control in obese men. DESIGN: Obese men reported in a fasted state in the morning to the laboratory where an isoenergetic pre-load (4100+/-234 kJ, which was 33% average daily energy requirement (ADER) of each subject) comprising 70% carbohydrate, 15% protein, and 15% fat was given. This was administered either as a SINGLE meal, or divided evenly over 5 meals given hourly as a MULTI feeding pattern. Five hours after the first pre-load, an ad libitum test meal was given to determine whether there was a difference in the amount of energy that was consumed between the two eating patterns. SUBJECTS: Seven non-diabetic, non-smoking, unrestrained obese men (age 37.4+/-18.5; BMI 40.02+/-10. 93 kg/m-2) were recruited for this study. Subjects were not told the precise reasons for this study but rather were informed that changes in blood glucose, insulin and free fatty acids with meal frequency were to be monitored. MEASUREMENTS: Blood glucose, serum insulin and free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations, and visual analogue scales (VAS) were measured prior to commencing the feeding regime and thereafter hourly for 5 h. Thereafter an ad libitum meal was given. The weight (and energy content) of the food consumed, and the time taken to eat lunch were recorded. Following this ad libitum lunch, the same variables were determined again (15, 45, and 75 min post-test meal). RESULTS: When given a SINGLE pre-load, 27% more (t=2.651; P<0.05) energy was consumed in the ad libitum test meal (5261+/-1289 kJ) compared to that eaten after the MULTI pre-load (3763+/-1986 kJ). This increase in food intake occurred despite no significant change in subjective hunger ratings. Over the 315 min pre-load period, peak insulin concentrations were significantly higher (F6,72=7.95, P<0.01) on the SINGLE treatment (171.2+/-129.8 microU ml-1) than on the MULTI treatment (133.7+/-70.2 microU ml-1). Serum insulin remained elevated for longer on the MULTI meal treatment, resulting in no difference in the area under the insulin curves between the two feeding treatments. There was a positive correlation (r=0.87) between the amount of energy consumed at lunch and insulin concentration before lunch in the SINGLE group. However, this relationship was not apparent when subjects were given the MULTI meal preload. CONCLUSION: Obese males fed an isoenergetic pre-load sub-divided into a multi-meal plan consumed 27% less at a subsequent ad libitum test meal than did the same men when given the pre-load as a single meal. Prolonged but attenuated increases in serum insulin concentration on the multi-meal programme may facilitate this acute reduction in appetite.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

The effect of sibutramine on energy expenditure and appetite during chronic treatment without dietary restriction.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the contribution of a thermogenic effect to weight loss induced by eight weeks treatment with sibutramine (15mg/d) vs placebo in obese subjects. DESIGN: Randomised, placebo controlled, double blind study. SUBJECTS: Thirty-two (7 male, 25 female) healthy obese body mass index (BMI) 33.9+/-0.5 kg/m2 subjects completed the trial. MEASUREMENTS: Energy expenditure (EE) was measured by indirect calorimetry during a 32 h stay in a respiration chamber before and after 8 weeks treatment. Visual analogue scales were completed for assessment of appetite sensation. No dietary restriction was given. RESULTS: Sibutramine caused a significant weight loss compared with placebo (-2.4 kg vs+0.3 kg, P<0.001). Despite the larger weight loss after 8 weeks, 24-h EE did not decrease more in the sibutramine than in the placebo group (-2. 6% vs -2.5%, P=ns). When the changes in 24-h EE were adjusted for changes in body weight, 24-h EE decreased significantly less in the sibutramine group than in the placebo group (0.8% vs 3.8%, P<0.02). Sibutramine significantly decreased both hunger and anticipated food consumption, and increased satiety scores. CONCLUSIONS: The weight reducing effect of sibutramine in humans is caused by a dual mechanism: reduction of energy intake by increasing satiety and decreasing hunger and prevention of the decline in EE that follows weight loss.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: effects on food intake and body weight.

BACKGROUND: Beverages are contributing an increased proportion of energy to the diet. Because they elicit a weak compensatory dietary response, they may increase risk of positive energy balance. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to document the differential effects of matched liquid and solid carbohydrate loads on diet and body weight. DESIGN: In a cross-over design, seven males and eight females consumed dietary carbohydrate loads of 1880 kJ/day as a liquid (soda) or solid (jelly beans) during two 4 week periods separated by a 4 week washout. Subjects were permitted to consume the loads however they chose. In addition to baseline measurements, diet records were obtained on random days throughout the study, body composition was measured weekly, physical activity was assessed before and after treatments and hunger was assessed during washout and midway through each treatment. RESULTS: Free-feeding energy intake during the solid period was significantly lower than intake prior to this period. Dietary energy compensation was precise (118%). No decrease in free-feeding energy intake occurred during the liquid period. Total daily energy intake increased by an amount equal to the load resulting in dietary compensation of -17%. Consequently, body weight and BMI increased significantly only during the liquid period. Physical activity and hunger were unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that liquid carbohydrate promotes positive energy balance, whereas a comparable solid carbohydrate elicits precise dietary compensation. Increased consumption of energy-yielding fluids may promote positive energy balance.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

The effect of graded levels of exercise on energy intake and balance in free-living women.

AIM: We assessed the effect of graded increases in exercised-induced energy expenditure (EE) on appetite, daily energy intake (EI), total daily EE and body weight in six lean women using a within-subject, repeated measures design. METHOD: Subjects were each studied three times during 7 day treatments, corresponding to no-exercise (control; Nex; 0 MJ/day), medium exercise level (Mex; approximately 1.9 MJ/day) and high exercise level (Hex; approximately 3.4 MJ/day), with 2 day maintenance beforehand. Subjects self-weighed ad libitum food intake. EE was assessed by continual heart rate monitoring. During waking hours subjects recorded hourly sensations of hunger and appetite. RESULTS: EE amounted to 9.2, 11.0 and 12.1 MJ/day (F (2, 10)=5.67; P=0.023 (s.e.d.=0.87)) on the Nex, Mex and Hex treatments, respectively. The corresponding values for EI were 8.9, 9.2 and 10.0 MJ/day (F (2, 10)=4.80; P=0.035 (s.e.d.=0.36)). There were very weak treatment effects on hunger. Weight loss was significantly different from zero on the Mex and Hex treatments. CONCLUSION: Markedly increasing EE through exercise produced significant but partial compensations in EI ( approximately 33% of EE due to exercise). Accurate adjustments of El to acute increases in EE are likely to take weeks rather than days.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Fasting leptin and appetite responses induced by a 4-day 65%-energy-restricted diet.

OBJECTIVE: Animal studies show that the leptin decline after acute severe caloric restriction is a peripheral signal to increase food intake. However, most human studies have failed to observe such a relationship. We studied the acute effects of severe caloric restriction on the association between serum leptin concentrations and subjective appetite. SUBJECTS: A total of 44 healthy adult men (aged: 43 +/- 5 years; BMI: 27.3 +/- 3.2 kg/m(2)). MEASUREMENTS: Fasting serum leptin concentrations and self-perceived appetite levels were measured during a 4-day diet containing 36% of the estimated energy requirements. Appetite levels were assessed with a 10-point Likert scale, reflecting hunger, fullness, desire to eat, prospective consumption and total appetite. RESULTS: After the 4-day energy deficit, fasting leptin concentrations decreased by 39.4% (95% CI: -43.6; -34.9%). This decline was associated with an increase in fasting hunger (r = -0.42; P < 0.01), desire to eat (r = -0.39; P < 0.05) and total appetite (r = -0.38; P < 0.05). Furthermore, the association between fasting leptin concentrations and fasting appetite levels became stronger during the energy restriction period (for total appetite: day 0 r = -0.15, P = 0.32; day 2 r = -0.31, P =< 0.05; day 4 r = -0.41, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The acute proportional reduction in fasting leptin after 4-day energy restriction is associated with an increase in self-perceived appetite. Additionally, the inverse association between proportional fasting leptin concentrations and self-perceived appetite response becomes stronger as energy restriction is prolonged. These findings suggest that leptin has an instrumental role in restoring energy balance in humans through the expression of appetite.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Disinhibition, as assessed by the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire, is inversely related to psychological well-being in postmenopausal women.

UNLABELLED: Psychological correlates of obesity remain under controversy. As eating behaviors and dieting history have been previously related to obesity status, these dietary variables may contribute to identify overweight and obese individuals who are at higher risk of having an impaired psychological well-being. OBJECTIVE: The main purpose of this cross-sectional study was to verify the hypothesis of a relationship between weight status and psychological well-being, and to examine whether cognitive dietary restraint, disinhibition, susceptibility to hunger and dieting history could be related to psychological well-being. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: In a sample of 101 postmenopausal women, we performed anthropometric measurements (weight, height and body mass index (BMI)), and measured psychological well-being (PER Questionnaire). The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and a questionnaire about dieting history (dieters: had already been on a diet; non-dieters: had never been on a diet) were also administrated. RESULTS: A trend for a significant relationship was observed between BMI and psychological well-being (r=-0.17; P=0.08). Significant negative relationships were observed for disinhibition, susceptibility to hunger and all their subscales with psychological well-being (-0.28</=r</=-0.48), whereas no significant differences in psychological well-being were observed between dieters and non-dieters. Finally, women displaying a higher score for habitual susceptibility to disinhibition (which is the subscale of TFEQ that was the most closely related to psychological well-being) had a lower level of psychological well-being, regardless of their weight status. CONCLUSION: These results show that, as well as being related to weight status, TFEQ-factors are also related to psychological well-being. More specifically, individuals who display higher levels of disinhibition may be at higher risk of having an impaired psychological well-being.

Aged↗

PubMed2006

Successful dieters have increased neural activity in cortical areas involved in the control of behavior.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether dietary restraint, a landmark of successful dieting, is associated with specific patterns of brain responses to the sensory experience of food and meal consumption. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: Cross-sectional study of the brain's response to the sensory experience of food and meal consumption in nine successful dieters (age: 38+/-7 years, body fat (%): 28+/-3) and 20 non-dieters (age: 31+/-9 years, body fat (%): 33+/-9), all women. MEASUREMENTS: Changes in brain activity in response to the sensory experience of food and meal consumption were assessed by using positron emission tomography and (15)O water as a radiotracer. Body fatness was assessed by dual X-ray absorptiometry. Subjective ratings of hunger and fullness were measured by visual analogue scale. Dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger were assessed by the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire. RESULTS: Successful dieters had a significantly higher level of dietary restraint compared to non-dieters. In response to meal consumption, successful dieters had a greater activation in the dorsal prefrontal cortex (DPFC), dorsal striatum and anterior cerebellar lobe as compared to non-dieters. In response to the same stimulation, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) was significantly more activated in non-dieters as compared to successful dieters. Dietary restraint was positively correlated with the response in the DPFC and negatively with the response in the OFC. The responses in the DPFC and OFC were negatively intercorrelated. CONCLUSION: Cortical areas involved in controlling inappropriate behavioral responses, such as the DPFC, are particularly activated in successful dieters in response to meal consumption. The association between the degree of dietary restraint and the coordinated neural changes in the DPFC and OFC raises the possibility that cognitive control of food intake is achieved by modulating neural circuits controlling food reward.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Serum leptin and short-term regulation of eating in obese women.

1. Leptin is generally thought to play a key role in the regulation of eating. However, its real role in human eating behaviour is still poorly known. Therefore, the role of leptin in the regulation of eating was examined in obese binge- and non-binge-eating women during exposure to food and food-related stimuli. 2. Eleven binge- and ten non-binge-eating obese women took part in the study. In addition to serum leptin, serum insulin, non-esterified fatty acids, plasma glucose, salivation, the feeling of hunger and the desire to eat were repeatedly measured during the experiment. 3. Serum leptin levels did not differ between the binge- and non-binge-eating women. Neither were leptin levels associated with the feeling of hunger or the desire to eat food, nor with the amount or composition of food eaten. During food exposure leptin levels did not change, whereas at the same time serum insulin levels increased and serum non-esterified fatty acid levels decreased. The change in salivation during food exposure was inversely associated with the fasting leptin level. 4. This study indicates that serum leptin does not play a role in the regulation of eating in obese women, at least not in the short term. Furthermore, leptin levels are not different in obese binge-eating women as compared with obese non-binge-eating women. Interestingly, high fasting leptin levels may be associated with a decreased salivation response in the presence of food and food-related stimuli.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Rights-based food and nutrition perspective: 21st century challenge for dietetics.

Progress in addressing the problems of hunger and malnutrition has been slow and uneven across regions and countries of the world. A rights-based perspective, not merely a utilitarian argument, must serve as the rationale for humans to be properly nourished. Rights impose corresponding binding obligations on others and the concept of rights holders and duty bearers goes beyond the human development paradigm. The right to adequate food is realized when every man, woman and child, alone or in community with others, has physical and economic access at all times to adequate food or means for its procurement. As duty bearers, governments are obligated to assure the realization of that right and accountable if the right is violated. The use of the human rights approach to adequate food necessarily implies a re-examination and fundamental changes in the way we think about hunger and malnutrition and their causes; the manner of shaping and reshaping policies; the context and processes of planning, monitoring and evaluating programmes; and the substance and method of research and education in food and nutrition. Dietitians and dietetic associations can be instrumental in making the human right to adequate food a reality.

Developing Countries↗

PubMed2001

Altered subjective appetite parameters in Crohn's disease patients.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Altered appetite and early satiety may promote anorexia associated with Crohn's disease. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of disease activity on subjective appetite parameters in Crohn's disease patients. METHODS: Seventeen patients with Crohn's disease and 15 healthy controls (8 M: 7 F, 34 (20-35) years) were studied. Subjects rated their hunger, desire to eat, fullness and level of satiety using visual analogue scales after an overnight fast. Subjects were reassessed after ingestion of 500 and 1000 ml water. Anthropometry was used to determine percentage body fat. Serum leptin & TNF- alpha levels were assessed using immunoassay. Disease activity was determined using the Harvey-Bradshaw index. RESULTS: Hunger ratings for active Crohn's disease patients were significantly lower than controls at baseline (P<0.05). Desire to eat was lower in patients with active Crohn's disease than controls both at baseline (95% CI, 0.3 mm, 40.7 mm) and after ingestion of 500 ml water (95% CI, 1.25 mm, 51.9 mm) (P<0.05). Serum leptin concentrations were significantly associated with percent body fat (r=0.57;P<0.001) and, after correcting for body fat status, tended to be higher in patients with active Crohn's disease (mean 0.9 ng/ml/% body fat; SD 0.8 ng/ml/% body fat) compared with either patients with inactive disease (mean 0.4 ng/ml/% body fat; SD 0.3 ng/ml/% body fat) or healthy controls (mean 0.3 ng/ml/% body fat; SD 0.2 ng/ml/% body fat) (P=0.15, ns). Appetite parameters and serum leptin concentrations showed no significant correlation. CONCLUSIONS: Subjective appetite parameters were altered in patients with active Crohn's disease. At baseline, patients with active Crohn's disease were less hungry than healthy controls and had less desire to eat. After ingestion of 500 ml of water, desire to eat was significantly less in patients with active disease as compared with healthy controls. Serum leptin concentration corrected for percent body fat tended to be higher in patients with active Crohn's disease compared with inactive Crohn's disease and healthy controls, but the differences did not reach statistical significance.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

[Risk-benefit analysis of a hCG-500 kcal reducing diet (cura romana) in females].

The British physician A.T.W. Simeons described in 1954 a new method for dieting. He combined a reduction diet (500 kcal per day) with daily injections of the pregnancy hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) (125 IU i.m.). According to Simeons the patient should not lose more weight during a 4-to-6 weeks' diet than without hCG, but the injections should facilitate to maintain the diet and to lose body weight at specific parts of the body (e.g. hip, belly, thigh). After the first publication various studies conducted with male and female patients analysed the efficacy of the "Cura romana". 10 of these studies showed positive and another 10 studies negative results with regard to hCG-related weight reduction. Two of these studies with positive results were double-blind studies (hCG vs. placebo). Most of them were reports on therapeutical experiences and were not controlled studies. According to these reports the body proportions normalized and the feeling of hunger was tolerable. Four out of 10 studies with negative results were controlled studies (hCG vs. control without hCG), whereas 6 were double-blind studies. These studies showed a significant weight reduction during dieting, but no differences between treatment groups in respect of body weight, body proportions and feeling of hunger. One of them is the only German study conducted by Rabe et al. in 1981 in which 82 randomised premenopausal volunteers had been dieting either with hCG or without hCG injections. In recent publications describing mostly well-documented double-blind studies authors largely reject hCG administration in dieting. Supporters of the hCG diet must prove the efficacy of this method in controlled studies according to the German Drug Law. Until then the opinion of the German steroid toxicology panel is still valid, that hCG is ineffective in dieting and should not be used (Bolt 1982 a, 1982 b).

Appetite↗

PubMed2003

Characterizing a sustainability transition: goals, targets, trends, and driving forces.

Sustainable development exhibits broad political appeal but has proven difficult to define in precise terms. Recent scholarship has focused on the nature of a sustainability transition, described by the National Research Council as meeting the needs of a stabilizing future world population while reducing hunger and poverty and maintaining the planet's life-support systems. We identify a small set of goals, quantitative targets, and associated indicators that further characterize a sustainability transition by drawing on the consensus embodied in internationally negotiated agreements and plans of action. To illustrate opportunities for accelerating progress, we then examine current scholarship on the processes that influence attainment of four such goals: reducing hunger, promoting literacy, stabilizing greenhouse-gas concentrations, and maintaining fresh-water availability. We find that such analysis can often reveal "levers of change," forces that both control the rate of positive change and are subject to policy intervention.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

The reproducibility of subjective appetite scores.

Although subjective appetite scores are widely used, studies on the reproducibility of this method are scarce. In the present study nine healthy, normal weight, young men recorded their subjective appetite sensations before and during 5 h after two different test meals A and B. The subjects tested each meal twice and in randomized order. Visual analogue scale (VAS) scores, 10 cm in length, were used to assess hunger, satiety, fullness, prospective food consumption and palatability of the meals. Plasma glucose and lactate concentrations were determined concomitantly. The repeatability was investigated for fasting values, delta-mean 5 h and mean 5 h values, delta-peak/nadir and peak/nadir values. Although the profiles of the postprandial responses were similar, the coefficients of repeatability (CR = 2SD) on the mean differences were large, ranging from 2.86 to 5.24 cm for fasting scores, 1.36 to 1.88 cm for mean scores, 2.98 to 5.42 cm for delta-mean scores, and 3.16 to 6.44 cm for peak and delta-peak scores. For palatability ratings the CR values varied more, ranging from 2.38 (taste) to 8.70 cm (aftertaste). Part of the difference in satiety ratings could be explained by the differences in palatability ratings. However, the low reproducibility may also be caused by a conditioned satiation or hunger due to the subjects' prior experience of the meals and therefore not just be a reflection of random noise. It is likely, however, that the variation in appetite ratings is due both to methodological day-to-day variation and to biological day-to-day variation in subjective appetite sensations.

Adult↗