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PubMed1999

Relationships between the development of biological risk factors for coronary heart disease and lifestyle parameters during adolescence: The Northern Ireland Young Hearts Project.

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between the longitudinal development of biological risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) (namely, serum lipids, body fatness, blood pressure and cardiorespiratory fitness) and the development of lifestyles considered to be atherogenic. The study was conducted in a representative sample of adolescents from Northern Ireland, a region of high coronary mortality, and atherogenic aspects of lifestyle such as cigarette smoking, physical inactivity and selected aspects of diet were examined. Repeated measurements were made at 12 and 15 y of age on 229 boys and 230 girls. Longitudinal relations were analysed with generalised estimating equations, and the following longitudinal relations were found: for boys diastolic blood pressure was positively associated with vitamin C intake (P = 0.014), and inversely with energy intake (P = 0.006), and smoking (P = 0.048). Systolic blood pressure was inversely related to physical activity (P = 0.012), and smoking (P = 0.000). Body fatness was also inversely related to smoking (P = 0.006). Total cholesterol (TC) was positively related to physical activity (P = 0.044) and the TC:HDL cholesterol ratio positively to vitamin C intake (P = 0.008). Cardiorespiratory fitness was positively related to physical activity (P = 0.000) and inversely to smoking (P = 0.031). For girls, systolic blood pressure was positively related to vitamin C intake (P = 0.042); HDL cholesterol inversely to carbohydrate intake (P = 0.014), fat intake (P = 0.031), cholesterol intake (P = 0.042) and smoking (P = 0.035) and positively to energy intake (P = 0.035). The TC:HDL cholesterol ratio was inversely related to energy intake (P = 0.038) and finally, cardiorespiratory fitness positively to physical activity (P = 0.001). These results offer additional evidence that changes in lifestyle are associated with changes in biological risk factors in adolescents. Education and intervention at this stage, particularly in relation to cigarette smoking, physical activity and certain aspects of diet appear justified as part of a preventative strategy for CHD.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Diet quality, added sugar, and dietary fiber intakes in American preschoolers.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the relationship between meeting the intake recommendations for added sugar (AS) and dietary fiber and overall diet quality in American preschoolers from different ethnic backgrounds. METHODS: Data from a nationally representative sample of preschoolers participating in the Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) 1994-1996, and 1998 (n=5,437) were categorized into 3 groups: (1) meeting the recommendation for AS intake (< or = 10% of energy) and dietary fiber (14 g and 20 g in 2- to 3-year-olds and 4- to 5-year-olds, respectively; n=236); (2) meeting only 1 recommendation (n=1,502); and (3) meeting neither (n=3,699). Dietary AS and dietary fiber sources were ascertained. Mean energy intake, nutrient intake, and food group density were established within each category, and student's t test was employed to determine significant differences. Nutrient and food group density was also examined stratified by 4 distinct ethnic groups. RESULTS: Children meeting both recommendations had better diet quality but also higher energy intakes than children meeting only 1 or neither recommendation. CONCLUSION: Most American preschoolers do not meet the dietary intake recommendations for AS and dietary fiber. Health professionals should work together to increase dietary fiber density and reduction of added sugar in the diets of preschoolers to improve diet quality and oral health.

Black People↗

PubMed1985

Central and peripheral contributions of endogenous opioid systems to nutrient selection in rats.

The contribution of central and peripheral sites to opioid mediation of energy intake and dietary self-selection of the three macronutrients, protein, fat, and carbohydrate, was examined in male rats. Animals given access to either Purina Chow or a self-selection regime were injected with either the opioid antagonist, naltrexone (0.0, 0.1, 1.0, and 5.0 mg/kg, IP), or quarternary naltrexone (0.0, 0.1, 1.0, and 5.0 mg/kg, IP), an opioid antagonist that does not readily enter the central nervous system. Animals received injections at the beginning of an 8-h feeding period, and nutrient intakes were measured at 1, 2, 4, and 8 h postinjection. Naltrexone and its quarternary analogue differed in their effects both on total energy intake and macronutrient selection. Naltrexone led to significant decreases in total energy intake in animals on both dietary regimes, whereas quarternary naltrexone did not modify energy intake of animals given access to either diet. Naltrexone produced a sustained reduction in fat intake and initial decreases in carbohydrate and protein intakes. Quarternary naltrexone did not modify overall energy intake but did lead to modifications in nutrient choice. In contrast to naltrexone, quarternary naltrexone resulted in increased fat intake, decreased carbohydrate intake, and a small reduction in protein intake. These data suggest that both peripheral and central sites contribute to opioid effects on patterns of nutrient choice.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Nutritional management of dialysis patients: balancing among nutrient intake, dialysis dose, and nutritional status.

BACKGROUND: Recommended protein intake for dialysis patients is much higher compared with allowance for normal adults. The authors tried to make a consideration on balancing among nutrient intake, dialysis dose, and nutritional status in maintenance dialysis patients. METHODS: In 57 patients, 13 on hemodialysis (HD) and 44 on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD), serum urea nitrogen (SUN), albumin, weekly creatinine clearance of CAPD, and body protein mass by multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis were measured. Energy intake was examined from the patients' food diary by a registered dietitian, and protein intake was estimated by both the patients' food diary and calculation of protein equivalent nitrogen appearance. RESULTS: In HD patients, predialysis SUN levels significantly correlated with the amounts of protein intake (r = 0.893; P < 0.001), and there was no correlation between post- and next predialysis SUN levels. In CAPD patients, SUN levels significantly correlated with the amounts of protein intake (r = 0.645; P < 0.001), and there was no correlation between SUN levels and weekly Ccr. The amounts of protein intake were significantly correlated with body protein mass (r = 0.365; P = 0.014), and there were significantly positive relationships between the amounts of protein intake and energy intake in both HD (r = 0.798; P < 0.001) and CAPD patients (r = 0.631; P = 0.006). CONCLUSION: Whereas higher intake of protein requires higher doses of dialysis, lower intake of protein with sufficient energy intake requires lower doses of dialysis, and both could give the same effects on nutritional status.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Dietary composition of pregnant women is related to size of the baby at birth.

The fetal origins theory of adult disease suggests that term infants who are small for their gestational age have an increased susceptibility to chronic disease in adulthood as a consequence of physiologic adaptations to undernutrition during fetal life. Consistent evidence for an influence of women's dietary composition during pregnancy on growth of their babies is lacking, despite robust effects in animal experiments. We undertook a prospective observational study of 557 women aged 18-41 y, living in Adelaide, South Australia. Diet was assessed in early and late pregnancy using an FFQ. In early pregnancy, medians for energy intake, the proportion of energy derived from protein and from carbohydrate were 9.0 MJ, 17 and 48%, respectively. In late pregnancy the corresponding medians were 9.2 MJ, 16 and 49%. In early pregnancy, the percentage of energy derived from protein was positively associated with birth weight (P = 0.02) and placental weight (P = 0.07), independently of energy intake and weight gain during pregnancy, and after adjustment for potential confounders, including maternal age, parity, and smoking. Effects were stronger among women (n = 429) who had reliable data, based on prespecified criteria including the plausibility of dietary data when referenced against estimated energy expenditure. In addition, for this subgroup, the percentage of energy from carbohydrate in early and late pregnancy was negatively associated with ponderal index of the baby, and a specific effect of protein from dairy sources was identified. These data support the proposition that maternal dietary composition has an effect on fetal growth. Maternal diet in Western societies may therefore be important for the long-term health of the child.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

Feeding value of corn and corn silage fed at different levels in the diets for young cattle.

4 heifers (268 to 400 kg live weight) were fed with four rations containing corn silage and corn flour in ratios of 82:18 (I), 65:35 (II), 45:55 (III) and 25:75 (IV). Urea was added to achieve an N balance. The rations were aimed at a daily weight gain of 700-800 g. The digestibility of the rations, their metabolizable energy, heat production and retained energy were determined. The digestibility of the organic matter was, in the sequence of I-IV = 73.2, 74.3, 75.4 and 75.8%. In the same sequence the energy intake per animal and day in MJ was = 95.9, 92.8, 91.3 and 89,7; the digestibility of the energy was 71.5, 72.2, 73.8 and 74.8%. In urine 3.1, 2.5, 2.7 and 2.9% and in methane 7.6, 7.8, 7.6 and 7.2% of the energy intake were excreted. Metabolizable energy was 60.8, 62.0, 63.5 and 64.7%, heat production 48.7, 48,7, 48.2 and 49.8% of the energy intake. 12.2, 13.2, 14.4 and 14.9% of the energy intake were retained. 51.6, 48.8, 42.4 and 40.1% of the retained energy was protein energy. The energetic feed value of both ration components has been calculated and stated according to various mathematical methods.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1984

The satiating efficiency of foods.

Experiments were undertaken to test the general hypothesis that some foods are more satiating than others, to find a mechanism for their differential satiating efficiencies, and to determine whether certain soups had a high enough satiating efficiency to recommend their addition to a meal as a way of reducing total caloric intake of that meal. In the first experiment it was found that intake of a test meal was lower after a large preload of tomato soup than after a small preload in women, but not in men. However, the total energy intake (soup plus test meal) was no less with meals which included the large soup preload than it was with meals that did not include a preload. Therefore adding a normal portion of tomato soup to a meal would not reduce its total energy intake. We noted the interesting incidental finding that total energy intake (i.e., preload plus test meal) of the meals which contained the larger amount of soup was less than the total energy intake of the meals which contained a combination of crackers , jelly, and juice. In the second experiment we confirmed this finding by showing that when equal weights of tomato soup preloads and a preload of crackers , cheese, and apple juice, which contains more energy, were given, total energy intake was less in meals which included soup. Therefore, substituting tomato soup for a more calorically dense first course could reduce total energy intake of that meal. In the third experiment, the hypothesis suggested by the second was confirmed. Two soups were more satiating than crackers , cheese, and juice. When two calorie levels were used for each preload, it was shown that calorie for calorie, these soups decreased intake of the test meal more than crackers , cheese, and juice. In the fourth experiment we showed that the mechanism for this differential satiating efficiency is not readily attributable to either bulk related factors or fat content. We suggest that the differential satiating efficiencies are related to differences in nutrient dispersion, orosensory cues, or temperature. Finally, reductions in intake were accompanied by reductions in the initial rate of eating and not by increases in the rate of deceleration. This reduction was small but consistent and suggests that foods which are more satiating reduce intake by decreasing desire to eat (i.e., hunger), not by accelerating the onset of meal termination (i.e., satiety). In fact the duration of meals was unaffected by the preloads.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Low-calorie diets and sustained weight loss.

The principles of weight management in overweight and obesity are primarily to achieve clinically significant weight loss and secondarily (but perhaps more importantly) to maintain weight loss. The traditional approach to weight reduction has been the prescription of diets that provide an energy intake below that of energy expenditure, usually to provide a balanced ratio of protein, carbohydrate, and fat in reduced quantities to provide an energy intake of 800 to 1500 kcal/d. Evaluation of the efficacy of such interventions is difficult despite a wealth of publications, because few randomized trials have been conducted and various adjunctive therapies confound interpretation. Systematic reviews of low-calorie diets have been unable to come to any firm conclusions about the value of different ways of achieving energy restriction, but one meta-analysis of low-fat diets produced a mean weight loss of 10 kg of weight loss that was greater in those with a higher initial body weight. Greater weight loss was achieved by subjects prescribed a 600-kcal deficit diet, compared with a conventional low-calorie (1200 kcal/d) diet. This study has been influential for clinical dietetic practice, particularly with UK dietitians, but also in the design of dietetic support in clinical trials of pharmacotherapy. Low-calorie diets can be effective treatment, but the optimum way of delivering such diets remains unclear.

Clinical Trials as Topic↗

PubMed2000

Dietary intake, serum lipids, insulin resistance and body composition in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy 'Diet FRS Study'.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate (i) differences in dietary fat and energy intake between those reporting and those not reporting fat redistribution syndrome (FRS), and (ii) the relationship between dietary fat, total energy intake, serum biochemistry and the clinical characteristics of the syndrome. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. SETTING: Outpatient service of a tertiary referral hospital, Sydney, Australia. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Dietary intake, serum lipids and insulin resistance and body composition (fat-free mass, fat mass, waist-to-hip ratio; WHR) were determined in 100 HIV-positive patients whose FRS status was classified on the basis of self-report of body composition changes, verified by clinical examination. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in total or saturated dietary fat intake when grouped by FRS status. There was no significant correlation between dietary saturated or total fat intake and the serum or body composition parameters measured. Total energy intake was higher in those patients reporting FRS (14575 versus 12283 kJ, P = 0.037) after adjustment for age, smoking and exercise status. CONCLUSION: There appears to be no relationship between either dietary saturated or total fat intake and the serum or body composition parameters characteristic of FRS; however, the total energy intake was significantly higher in those with FRS. The nature of the relationship between total energy intake and FRS (cause or effect) warrants further investigation.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed2005

Role of cholecystokinin in appetite control and body weight regulation.

Summary Cholecystokinin (CCK), a peptide that is distributed widely throughout the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system, has a number of physiological effects including the stimulation of gallbladder contraction and pancreatic and gastric acid secretion, slowing of gastric emptying and suppression of energy intake. This review focuses on current knowledge relating to (i) the effects of CCK on energy intake; (ii) the role for CCK in the pathophysiology of obesity; and (iii) the therapeutic potential for strategies which modulate the action or secretion of CCK in the management of obesity. While CCK plays a role in the acute regulation of appetite and energy intake, there is little evidence to suggest that specific CCK receptor agonists, or modulation of the actions of endogenous CCK by dietary manipulation, have sustainable inhibitory effects on energy intake. Hence, it appears unlikely that manipulating the pathways by which CCK modulates energy intake will prove to be an effective strategy in the long term management of obesity.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Diet, obesity and education in three age groups of Saskatchewan women.

Research on relationships between socioeconomic status and Canadians' diet is limited. The current study investigated differences by education in dietary variables shown to be related to obesity; it included three age groups of Saskatchewan women who participated in the 1992 to 1993 Heart Health Intervention Evaluation baseline study. Multistage sampling was used to select randomly from the Saskatchewan Health Insurance Registration File. The overall response rate was 42.6%; a sample representative of the general Saskatchewan population was obtained. Three-day estimated food records and demographic information from 396 women aged 18 to 74 years were subdivided into three age categories: 18 to 34 years, 35 to 54 years, and 55 to 74 years. For the 18- to 34-year group, obesity was significantly more prevalent with lower education; trends were similar for the older age groups. Under-reporting of energy intake (indicated by an energy intake:basal metabolic rate ratio of <1.1) was related to obesity but not to education. The greatest differences in diet between educational groups were observed in the 18- to 34-year group; fewer differences existed in the 35- to 54-year group, and none in the 55- to 74-year group. Health promotion efforts need to be targeted appropriately, and based on differences in dietary intakes by socioeconomic group. Research should help promote an understanding of the reasons for differences in diet by socioeconomic status.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Schoolchildren's diets and participation in school feeding programmes in Jamaica.

OBJECTIVES: To describe food consumption during the school day of rural Jamaican children and participation in two government school feeding programmes. To determine factors which were related to these. DESIGN: Cross sectional. SETTING: 16 primary schools in rural Jamaica. SUBJECTS: 415 children in grades 2 and 5 (ages 7 and 10 years). RESULTS: Consumption of sweets, sweet drinks and snacks was high. Mean intakes at lunch were: energy 1537 kJ (SD 756), protein 10.4 g (SD 7.6) and iron 1.5 mg (SD 1.2). The mean energy intake was 17-20% of the daily requirement for this age group. Two types of school feeding programmes were available in the schools, one provided a cooked meal and the other a bun and milk. Median availability of school meals (as a percentage of children enrolled in the schools) over three terms was 24.6% (range 0-85.4%). Twenty per cent of the children participated in one or other programme. Poorer children were more likely to participate in the bun and milk programme (odds ratio 2.1, 95% CI 1.3-3.5) but children with more money to purchase food participated in the more costly cooked meal programme (odds ratio 2.4, 95% CI 1.3-4.6). CONCLUSIONS: Energy intakes at lunch in Jamaican children were somewhat below optimal levels and the reliance on sweets and snacks is an area of concern. Programme characteristics such as meal cost, may affect access to school feeding by poor children.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2000

Effect of dietary supplements and physical exercise on sensory perception, appetite, dietary intake and body weight in frail elderly subjects.

This present study investigated the effect of a 17-week intervention programme with nutrient-dense foods (enriched with vitamins and minerals at 25-100% of the Dutch recommended dietary allowance) and/or physical exercise in 159 frail elderly subjects (forty-six men, 113 women, mean age 78.7 (SD 5.6) years). Subjects were randomized into four groups: (1) control, (2) nutrition intervention, (3) exercise or (4) both nutrition intervention and exercise. Main outcome variables were sensory perception (smell test and questionnaire), appetite (questionnaire), energy intake (3 d food record) and body weight (on a weighing scale and with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements). At baseline, moderate but significant correlations were found between appetite and energy intake (r 0.30, P < 0.0001), between smell test and smell perception assessed by questionnaire (r 0.40, P < 0.0001) and between lean body weight and energy intake (r 0.50, P < 0.0001). Results after 17-weeks intervention revealed neither change in smell test scores (P = 0.19) nor in appetite (P = 0.17). A slight positive effect of exercise compared with non-exercising groups on energy intake (difference 0.5 MJ, P = 0.05) was shown next to a preserving effect of exercise on lean body mass (+0.08 kg) compared with a decrease (-0.4 kg) in non-exercisers (P < 0.02). The correlation between the change in lean body mass and change in energy intake was 0.18 (P = 0.05). In conclusion, an interesting preserving effect on lean body mass in frail elderly subjects due to 17 weeks of exercise was shown. Since a decline in lean body mass was observed in the non-exercisers, effects may be attributable to change in activity pattern. Changes in lean mass were also slightly, but significantly, correlated with changes in energy intake. In turn, energy intake was not related to a change in reported appetite or sensory perception. Nutrient-dense foods were not able to improve any of the outcome variables in this study.

Aged↗

PubMed1984

Effect of sucrose solution drinking option on the development of obesity in rats.

Energy intakes, body weights, body fat index and intrascapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) were examined in adult male Hooded-Wistar rats given a sucrose solution drinking option and one of five solid diets for 33 days: 1) a 12% fat, starch diet; 2) a 12% fat, sucrose-starch diet; 3) a 40% fat, starch diet; 4) a 60% fat, starch diet; or 5) an 80% fat diet. The effect of the sucrose solution drinking option varied depending on the solid diet. For the low fat carbohydrate diets the sucrose solution decreased solid food intake, increased body weight and increased the body fat index without significantly increasing total energy intake. For the high fat, low carbohydrate diet the sucrose solution decreased solid food intake, decreased body weight, decreased the body fat index and significantly decreased total energy intake. The development of the IBAT was decreased as a result of increasing the fat component of the diet. The sucrose solution drinking option opposed the inhibitory effect of the fat component and induced development of the IBAT. Assessment of the increase in the ratio of body weight to unit of energy intake indicated that the sucrose drinking option increased the potential to gain weight.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Individual assessment of intake of energy, nutrients and water in 54 elderly multidiseased nursing-home residents.

PURPOSE: Examination of the individual intake of energy, nutrients and water in clinically stable multidiseased nursing-home residents. METHODS: Comprehensive clinical assessment of 54 elderly nursing-home residents (80 +/- 10 years, mean +/- SD). The intake of food and beverages was measured by the weighed food intake method during five consecutive week days followed by computerized transformation to energy, 21 different nutrients, dietary fiber, alcohol and water. The resting energy expenditure was determined by indirect calorimetry. RESULTS: There was at least 2-3-fold, variation in intake of energy, nutrients and water, present also when expressed per kg body weight. For some micronutrients the relative intake variation was more than 8-fold. The results are compared with the present swedish recommended dietary allowances as well as with seven other studies of dietary intake in elderly using the weighed food intake method. The residents had on average 14.1 (range 6-31) different current clinical problems and were treated with a mean of 9.5 different drugs. The nursing staff spent 40 % of the total daytime working hours (7 am to 7 pm) on nutrition related issues. CONCLUSIONS: The nursing-home residents exhibited a large interindividual heterogeneity regarding intake of energy, nutrients and water. More emphasis should be given to individualized nutrition assessment in clinical geriatric care as a more solid base for nutrition treatment programmes integrated with the regular medical management and evaluation.

Aged↗

PubMed1992

Dietary patterns of elderly Boston-area residents defined by cluster analysis.

The dietary patterns of 680 noninstitutionalized, predominantly white, elderly volunteers from the Boston area (447 women and 233 men) were examined by cluster analysis of food contribution to energy intake. Data were derived from 3-day dietary records. The four major patterns identified corresponded to high consumption of (a) alcohol, (b) milk, cereals, and fruits, (c) bread and poultry, and (d) meat and potatoes. The resulting clusters of subjects differed significantly in gender, education, income, and frequency of smoking. Those with diets high in milk, cereals, and fruits had the highest intakes of micronutrients and the best hematologic profile. Those with high meat and potato intakes had the lowest intakes of micronutrients and lowest levels of plasma folate and vitamin B-6. High alcohol consumers had lowest blood levels of riboflavin and vitamin B-12 and highest levels of high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol. Those with high bread and poultry intakes had lowest reported energy intakes, but, paradoxically, they had the highest mean body mass index. Neither total serum cholesterol nor cholesterol intake varied significantly among groups. Our findings suggest that the nutritional status of the elderly may be improved by promoting food patterns rich in milk, fruit, and cereals and by counseling the elderly to limit consumption of alcohol and meats high in saturated fats.

Aged↗

PubMed1990

Satiation due to CCK-8 derivative infusion into VMH is related to a specific macronutrient selection.

Diet self-selection from carbohydrate, protein and lipid offered simultaneously was studied in adult male rats infused for 8 days with pyroglutamyl-CCK-8 (pGlu-CCK-8) (0.8 pmol/hr), a derivative of the COOH-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin (CCK), or vehicle bilaterally into the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). Infusion with pGlu-CCK-8 markedly decreased total daily energy intake mainly due to a suppressed carbohydrate intake. Both pGlu-CCK-8 and vehicle infusions caused a nonspecific decrease in protein intake, but the vehicle infusion caused a compensatory increase in lipid intake as well as carbohydrate intake, so their total energy intake was well maintained. These results suggest that the process of infusion into the VMH elicited itself a suppressive effect on protein intake, but that pGlu-CCK-8 infusion elicited a more specific suppressive effect on carbohydrate intake and, to a lesser extent, on lipid intake. These results also support the prediction that centrally administered CCK may suppress food intake and show in addition that such a suppression occurs selectively. The similarities and the differences in the patterns of macronutrient selection produced by vehicle of pGlu-CCK-8 infusions into the VMH provide further evidence of the unique functions of VMH and CCK in the feeding process.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Validation of the food frequency questionnaire with the 4-day record method and analysis of 24-h urinary nitrogen.

OBJECTIVE: To validate a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). DESIGN: FFQ was evaluated by a 4-day food record (FR), four consecutive 24-h urinary collections, and study-specific cut-off limits for ratio between energy intake (EI) and basal metabolic rate (BMR). SETTING: Department of geriatric medicine, Göteborg University, Vasa Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden. SUBJECTS: 76 consecutive 70-year-olds from representative population studies. RESULTS: FFQ provided consistently higher intakes of energy and nutrients than FR (1.18-2.51 of the FR values). For energy 95% CI estimates were 7167-8083 KJ and 9333-10579 KJ, by FR and FFQ methods, respectively. The correlation coefficients varied between 0.35 (total sugar) and 0.60 (energy and fat). The proportions and distribution of macronutrients were in good agreement between FFQ and FR. 95% CIs for the ratio between protein intake estimated by dietary methods and urinary protein were 1.14-1.36 and 1.00-1.13 for the FFQ and FR methods, respectively. However, the EI/BMR ratio for FR (1.27) was not in conformity with habitual energy expenditure compared to cut-off limits. CONCLUSION: This validity study showed that the agreement regarding distribution of energy from macronutrients between dietary methods and the reasonable ratio of FFQ-EI/BMR allow the conclusion that the FFQ method well reflects habitual intake of elderly Swedes.

Aged↗