[Biopharmaceutics. V. Biopharmaceutical stability and degradation].
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Biopharmaceutics↗
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Applying the biopharmaceutics classification system to veterinary pharmaceutical products. Part I: biopharmaceutics and formulation considerations.
The complexity of multiple species approvals continues throughout the life of a product as post-approval manufacturing changes, as well as all generic versions of approved products, are evaluated for each of the approved target animal species. In comparing product bioavailability across animal species, it is not unusual to observe marked interspecies differences. For many compounds, these differences reflect species-specific presystemic metabolism. However, a host of other variables must also be considered, including in vivo drug solubility, gastric transit time, intestinal permeability, diet, and species-by-formulation interactions. To predict potential species-by-formulation interactions, one must consider the solubility and intestinal permeability of the drug entity, the type of formulation, nature of the excipients, and the physiological characteristics of the animal recipient. In this paper, we examine manufacturing and formulation variables that can affect drug bioavailability, and the potential for species-specific differences in the responses to these formulations.
Animals↗
Defining and characterizing the late-stage biopharmaceutical pipeline.
OBJECTIVE: To identify and describe biopharmaceuticals in late-stage development in the United States and to understand their implications for third-party payers. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: "Biopharmaceutical" and biopharmaceuticals in late-stage US development (had completed Phase 2 or higher) were identified through reviews of literature, 4 drug-development databases, a clinical trial database, and informal telephone conversations with representatives of the US Food and Drug Administration, faculty at academic institutions, and manufacturers. RESULTS: "Biopharmaceutical" was defined as "any biology-based therapeutic that structurally mimics compounds found within the body." This includes recombinant proteins, monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, peptides, antisense oligonucleotides, therapeutic genes, and certain therapeutic vaccines. As of April 2003, there were 102 unique biopharmaceuticals in late-stage development for 156 indications in 36 disease categories, affecting at least 22 distinct physician specialties. Cancer agents are most common, with 30 agents (29%) targeting 62 indications (40%). Nearly 90% of the biopharmaceuticals require administration via injection or infusion, nearly 70% will require administration by a healthcare provider, and more than 60% will be administered in ambulatory care settings. All 22 physician specialties are affected by healthcare provider-administered biopharmaceuticals. Excluding cancer-related biopharmaceuticals, 60% of biopharmaceuticals and 54% of indications require chronic administration. Up to 81 biopharmaceuticals for 123 indications may be approved within the next 4 years (including secondary approvals). CONCLUSIONS: The broad range of the late-stage US biopharmaceutical pipeline has significant implications for third-party payers due to their likely premium price, once approved, as well as novel logistical considerations. Payers must prepare for a wide range of clinical, administrative, delivery, and economic issues.
Biopharmaceutics↗
Follow-on biologics: competition in the biopharmaceutical marketplace.
OBJECTIVE: To describe the implications of a follow-on biologic approval process with focus on current stakeholders, implications of the status quo, and recommendations for future policy. DATA SOURCES: A search using Medline, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Med Ad News, F-D-C Reports/Pink Sheets, and Google index directories was conducted with terms such as biologic, biopharmaceutical, generic, and follow-on. STUDY SELECTION: Articles pertaining to the follow-on biologic debate. DATA EXTRACTION: By the authors. DATA SYNTHESIS: Over the past decade, the biopharmaceutical market has experienced substantial growth in the number of product approvals and sales. In contrast with prescription medications, biologic agents currently lack an abbreviated regulatory approval process. Evidence from the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 suggests that reducing barriers to generic competition in the pharmaceutical market successfully increases generic market penetration and reduces overall prices to consumers. Although scientific and regulatory dissimilarities between biopharmaceuticals and other medications exist, a follow-on biologic approval process has the potential to play an important role in containing growth in pharmaceutical spending. In addition to biopharmaceutical and generic biopharmaceutical manufacturers, stakeholders with a vested interest in this debate include individual consumers who continue to bear the burden of spending increases in the pharmaceutical market. CONCLUSION: The debate over a follow-on process likely will be difficult as parties seek a balance between incentives for biopharmaceutical innovation, consumer safety, and affordability of existing biologic products.
Biopharmaceutics↗
Strategies to avoid virus transmissions by biopharmaceutic products.
The use of biopharmaceutical products offers an opportunity for the treatment of many diseases. Biotechnical manufacturing using recombinant mammalian cell lines is the most appropriate method today for the production of biopharmaceutical protein drugs for the treatment of human and animal diseases. However, mammalian cell line derived products have a potential risk for virus transmission to patients who are treated with these biopharmaceutical products. The reliability that biological products are free of any viruses requires a combination of several strategies: The use of well-characterized cell bank systems and, if feasible, the avoidance of biological raw materials for the cultivation of these mammalian cell lines and the production of biopharmaceuticals. Further on, the purification process for biopharmaceuticals has to be validated for its ability to efficiently remove and inactivate any potential virus contamination and, where applicable, also unconventional transmissible agents, such as BSE. In addition, the biopharmaceutical product itself can be tested for the presence of viruses. Like other manufacturing processes, biotechnical production processes have to be performed in compliance with current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP).
Animals↗
Transgenic plants as factories for biopharmaceuticals.
Plants have considerable potential for the production of biopharmaceutical proteins and peptides because they are easily transformed and provide a cheap source of protein. Several biotechnology companies are now actively developing, field testing, and patenting plant expression systems, while clinical trials are proceeding on the first biopharmaceuticals derived from them. One transgenic plant-derived biopharmaceutical, hirudin, is now being commercially produced in Canada for the first time. Product purification is potentially an expensive process, and various methods are currently being developed to overcome this problem, including oleosin-fusion technology, which allows extraction with oil bodies. In some cases, delivery of a biopharmaceutical product by direct ingestion of the modified plant potentially removes the need for purification. Such biopharmaceuticals and edible vaccines can be stored and distributed as seeds, tubers, or fruits, making immunization programs in developing countries cheaper and potentially easier to administer. Some of the most expensive biopharmaceuticals of restricted availability, such as glucocerebrosidase, could become much cheaper and more plentiful through production in transgenic plants.
Antibodies↗
Screening and characterization of biopharmaceuticals by high-performance capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced native fluorescence detection.
High-performance capillary electrophoresis (HPCE) with laser-induced native fluorescence (LIF) detection is used to address significant problems in the quality control of biopharmaceuticals. All of the biopharmaceuticals studied can be detected at subnanomolar levels with linear dynamic ranges of at least 3 orders of magnitude. HPCE/LIF can determine impurities in "purified" biopharmaceuticals present in amounts less than 0.01% (i.e., at 4 x 10(-11) M) that of the major component. With HPCE/LIF, detection sensitivity is thus no longer a concern in the assaying of active ingredients in biopharmaceutical dosage formulations. The peptide mapping of biopharmaceuticals present at 1 x 10(-7) M (or an injected limit of detection of 60 amol) is presented. Also, kinetic information on the reaction of a recombinant enzyme-drug with its substrate present at the micromolar level has been extracted from electropherograms acquired in real-time.
Biopharmaceutics↗
Shifting paradigms: biopharmaceuticals versus low molecular weight drugs.
Biopharmaceuticals are pharmaceutical products consisting of (glyco)proteins. Nowadays a substantial part of the FDA-approved drugs belong to this class of drugs. Biopharmaceuticals deserve special attention as they have a number of characteristics that set them aside from low molecular weight drugs. Their activity depends on their complicated shape based on secondary, tertiary and (sometimes) quaternary structures. These structures cannot be fully defined with our present set of analytical techniques and approaches for potency testing. They often are the same as (or closely resemble) endogenous proteins. This means that in safety testing and clinical test programs questions have to be addressed regarding species specific responses, selection of dosing schedules and route of administration, and the possible occurrence of immunogenicity. As the conformational structure of a protein is easily disturbed, formulation and handling of biopharmaceuticals needs special attention in order to optimize the therapeutic effect and minimize adverse reaction, among which immune responses. The issue of biogenerics is gaining more and more interest and different critical elements in the development of biogenerics are touched upon. In conclusion, biopharmaceuticals cannot be characterized fully in terms of their structure like low molecular weight drugs. The performance of biopharmaceuticals relies on strict production protocols and close monitoring of their activity in the clinical situation.
Animals↗
Medium term planning of biopharmaceutical manufacture using mathematical programming.
Regulatory pressures and capacity constraints are forcing the biopharmaceutical industry to consider employing multiproduct manufacturing facilities running on a campaign basis. The need for such flexible and cost-effective manufacture poses a significant challenge for planning and scheduling. This paper reviews the problem of planning and scheduling of biopharmaceutical manufacture and presents a methodology for the planning of multiproduct biopharmaceutical manufacturing facilities. The problem is formulated as a mixed integer linear program (MILP) to represent the relevant decisions required within the planning process and is tested on two typical biopharmaceutical industry planning problems. The proposed formulation is compared with an industrial rule based approach, which it outperforms in terms of profitability. The results indicate that the developed formulation offers an effective representation of the planning problem and would be a useful decision tool for manufacturers in the biopharmaceutical industry particularly at times of limited manufacturing capacity.
Algorithms↗
Role of analytical ultracentrifugation in assessing the aggregation of protein biopharmaceuticals.
In developing and manufacturing protein biopharmaceuticals, aggregation is a parameter that needs careful monitoring to ensure the quality and consistency of the final biopharmaceutical drug product. The analytical method of choice used to perform this task is size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). However, it is becoming more and more apparent that considerable care is required in assessing the accuracy of SEC data. One old analytical tool that is now reappearing to help in this assessment is analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC). Developments in AUC hardware and, more importantly, recent developments in AUC data analysis computer programs have converged to provide this old biophysical tool with the ability to extract very high resolution size information about the molecules in a given sample from a simple sedimentation velocity experiment. In addition, AUC allows sample testing to be conducted in the exact or nearly exact liquid formulation or reconstituted liquid formulation of the biopharmaceutical in the vial, with minimal surface area contact with extraneous materials. As a result, AUC analysis can provide detailed information on the aggregation of a biopharmaceutical, while avoiding many of the major problems that can plague SEC, thus allowing AUC to be used as an orthogonal method to verify SEC aggregation information and the associating properties of biopharmaceuticals.
Biopharmaceutics↗
Protein crystals for the delivery of biopharmaceuticals.
The year 2002 marked the 20th anniversary of the first successful product of modern biotechnology, the regulatory approval of recombinant insulin for biopharmaceutical applications. Insulin is also the first crystalline protein to be approved for therapeutic use. Over the past two decades, almost 150 biopharmaceuticals have gained marketing authorisation; however, insulin remains the only crystalline protein on the market. Significant research and development efforts have focused on the engineering of protein molecules, efficacy testing, model development, and protein production and characterisation. These advances have dramatically boosted the therapeutic applications of proteins, which now include treatments against acute conditions, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and viral disease, and chronic conditions, such as diabetes, growth hormone deficiency, haemophilia, arthritis, psoriasis and Crohn's disease. Despite these successes, many challenges normally associated with biopharmaceuticals, such as poor stability and limited delivery options, remain. Protein crystals have shown significant benefits in the delivery of biopharmaceuticals to achieve high concentration, low viscosity formulation and controlled release protein delivery. This review will discuss challenges related to the broader utilisation of protein crystals in biopharmaceutical applications, as well as recent advances and valuable new directions that protein crystallisation-based technologies present.
Animals↗
Biopharmaceuticals in China.
The biopharmaceutical industry, whose products are produced mainly by recombinant DNA technology, antibody technologies and cytotechnology, is the most important sector in industrial biotechnology, and is one of the most rapidly growing high-tech industries. The global market for biopharmaceuticals had been growing at annual growth rates of 15-33% over the last 8 years, and sales exceeded 55 billion dollars in 2005. This review presents an overview of the Chinese biopharmaceutical industry, listing the global top-selling biopharmaceuticals in 2005, and briefly describes the major biotech drugs approved by the Chinese State Food and Drug Administration, such as recombinant cytokines, therapeutic antibodies, recombinant vaccines, and gene therapy products.
Animals↗
Bioreactor technology: a novel industrial tool for high-tech production of bioactive molecules and biopharmaceuticals from plant roots.
Plants are the richest source for different bioactive molecules. Because of the vast number of side effects associated with synthetic pharmaceuticals, medical biotechnologists turned to nature to provide new promising therapeutic molecules from plant biofactories. The large-scale availability of the disease- and pesticide-free raw material is, however, restricted in vivo. Many bioactive plant secondary metabolites are accumulated in roots. Engineered plants can also produce human therapeutic proteins. Vaccines and diagnostic monoclonal antibodies can be won from their roots, so that engineered plants hold immense potential for the biopharmaceutical industry. To obtain sufficient amounts of the plant bioactive molecules for application in human therapy, adventitious and hairy roots have to be cultured in in vitro systems. High-tech pilot-scale bioreactor technology for the establishment of a long-term adventitious root culture from biopharmaceutical plants has recently been established. In this review, I briefly discuss a technology for cultivating bioactive molecule-rich adventitious and hairy roots from plants using a high-tech bioreactor system, as well as the principles and application of genome-restructuring mechanisms for plant-based biopharmaceutical production from roots. High-tech bioreactor-derived bioactive phytomolecules and biopharmaceuticals hold the prospect of providing permanent remedies for improving human well-being.
Biopharmaceutics↗
Medium term planning of biopharmaceutical manufacture with uncertain fermentation titers.
The growing trend of employing multiproduct manufacturing facilities along with the randomness inherent in the biopharmaceutical manufacturing environment is creating significant scheduling and planning challenges for the biopharmaceutical industry. This work focuses on capturing the effect of uncertainty in fermentation titers when optimizing the planning of biopharmaceutical manufacturing campaigns. A mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model based on previous work is derived via chance constrained programming (CCP). The methodology is applied to two illustrative examples, and the results are compared with those from the deterministic model and a multiscenario model accompanied by an iterative construction algorithm. The computational results indicate that the proposed methodology offers significant improvements in solution quality over the compared approaches and presents an opportunity for biopharmaceutical manufacturers to make better medium term planning decisions, particularly under uncertain manufacturing conditions.
Algorithms↗
A role for protein misfolding in immunogenicity of biopharmaceuticals.
For largely unknown reasons, biopharmaceuticals evoke potentially harmful antibody formation. Such antibodies can inhibit drug efficacy and, when directed against endogenous proteins, cause life-threatening complications. Insight into the mechanisms by which biopharmaceuticals break tolerance and induce an immune response will contribute to finding solutions to prevent this adverse effect. Using a transgenic mouse model, we here demonstrate that protein misfolding, detected with the use of tissue-type plasminogen activator and thioflavin T, markers of amyloid-like properties, results in breaking of tolerance. In wild-type mice, misfolding enhances protein immunogenicity. Several commercially available biopharmaceutical products were found to contain misfolded proteins. In some cases, the level of misfolded protein was found to increase upon storage under conditions prescribed by the manufacturer. Our results indicate that misfolding of therapeutic proteins is an immunogenic signal and a risk factor for immunogenicity. These findings offer novel possibilities to detect immunogenic protein entities with tPA and reduce immunogenicity of biopharmaceuticals.
Animals↗
Biopharmaceutic classification system: a scientific framework for pharmacokinetic optimization in drug research.
The tenets of biopharmaceutics, solubility and permeability, are of pivotal importance in new drug discovery and lead optimization due to the dependence of drug absorption and pharmacokinetics on these two properties. A classification system for drugs based on these two fundamental parameters, Biopharmaceutic Classification System (BCS), provides drug designer an opportunity to manipulate structure or physicochemical properties of lead candidates so as to achieve better "deliverability". Considering the facts for failure of NCEs, drug research, once concentrating on optimizing the efficacy and safety of the leads, dramatically transformed in the past two decades. With the enormous number of molecules being synthesized using combinatorial and parallel synthesis, high throughput methodologies for screening solubility and permeability has gained significant interest in pharmaceutical industry. Ultimate aim of the drug discovery scientist in pharmacokinetic optimization is to tailor the molecules so that they show the features of BCS class I without compromising on pharmacodynamics. Considerations to optimize drug delivery and pharmacokinetics right from the initial stages of drug design propelled need for "High Throughput Pharmaceutics" (HTP). In silico predictions and development of theoretical profiles for solubility and lipophilicity provides structure based biopharmaceutical optimization, while in vitro experimental models (microtitre plate assays and cell cultures) validate the predictions. Thus, biopharmaceutical characterization during drug design and early development helps in early withdrawal of molecules with insurmountable developmental problems associated with pharmacokinetic optimization.
Animals↗
The biopharmaceutic drug classification and drugs administered in extended release (ER) formulations.
A biopharmaceutic drug classification scheme for correlating the in-vitro drug product dissolution and in-vivo bioavailability for IR products was proposed by Amidon et al (1995). The classification arose from drug dissolution and absorption models which identified the key parameters controlling drug absorption as the dimensionless numbers; the Absorption number (A(n)), the Dissolution number (Dn) and the Dose number (D(o)). This led to a biopharmaceutic classification of drugs into four groups, the establishment of a basis for determining the conditions under which in-vitro-in-vivo (IVIV) correlation's are expected and the use of the classification to set drug bioavailability standards for IR products. These developments raise the issue of whether the biopharmaceutic classification has relevance to ER products. In contrast to IR products, drugs selected for ER products should have good gastrointestinal (GI) permeability and an extended site of absorption. However their permeability(Papp) may change depending on the site. Solubility(Cs), effective fluid volume and hence D(o) may also vary with site. Of particular relevance to both permeability and solubility is the degree of ionization of the drug. Residence time at each site, pH changes and the potential for drug degradation at different sites, the latter resulting in a restricted absorption window, will influence the time frame over which an IVIV relationship is possible. Of the drugs available in ER dosage forms approximately 63% are bases, 15% acids and the remainder either unionizable or small inorganic ions. Acidic drugs will tend to have lower solubility's high up in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), with solubility increasing down the GIT. In contrast with increased ionization permeability should fall. Thus with acids, as the dosage form moves to a more alkaline environment down the GIT, absorption may change from dissolution control to membrane control depending on the pK.a of the drug. In contrast bases will loose solubility with transit down the GIT, but become more permeable; absorption becoming more dissolution/release controlled or in extreme cases solubility controlled in the latter stages of the absorption phase. In the light of the above considerations a modified biopharmaceutic classification is proposed for ER products.
Biological Availability↗
Host cell contaminant protein assay development for recombinant biopharmaceuticals.
The efficiency and consistency of a biopharmaceutical purification process determines drug quality, including which specific types and concentrations of residual host cell or process contaminants may remain. Commercial reagents and generic analytical methods are available for quantitating most of these contaminants. However, no generic assay is available for quantitation of the specific contaminant host cell proteins (HCPs) which are unique to a novel purification process. Because of this, proprietary reagents and assays must be developed for the quantitation of process-specific HCPs in each biopharmaceutical drug. The need to develop proprietary reagents which are both sensitive to, and specific for, potentially complex mixtures of unique contaminant proteins has defined what is acceptable methodology for development of quantitative HCP assays. Within the biopharmaceutical industry this need is most often satisfied by the development of multi-analyte HCP immunoassays based upon the null cell mock purification model. Confidence in the quantitative nature of a given HCP assay, and the validity of analytical measurement obtained by the assay, is dependent upon empirical demonstration of the unique stoichiometry of the HCP assay reagents. In conjunction with other analytical and validation methods, an HCP immunoassay may be thought of as a necessary quantitative tool for the optimization and validation of biopharmaceutical purification process efficiency and consistency, rather than as an end in itself.
Drug Contamination↗