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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2026

Performance comparison of rapid and native barcoding methods for Oxford Nanopore sequencing of Poliovirus Viral Protein 1 (VP1) amplicons.

Accurate and timely sequencing of poliovirus is critical for global eradication efforts, particularly for molecular epidemiology based on the typing region of the genome, viral protein 1 (VP1). While Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) sequencing has expanded capabilities for poliovirus surveillance, the relative performance of different ONT library preparation methods, including ligation-based (Native Barcoding) and transposase-based (Rapid Barcoding) approaches, has not been systematically evaluated. In this study, we compared rapid barcoding and native barcoding workflows for sequencing VP1 amplicons from 17 type 2 poliovirus-positive samples, each processed in triplicate. Native barcoding generated significantly more sequencing output, producing approximately 2.3-fold greater total read yield than rapid barcoding, and demonstrated higher run-to-run reproducibility (R2 = 0.979-0.998 vs. 0.847-0.929, respectively; p < 0.001). In addition, native barcoding generated 80% of the total yield achieved by rapid barcoding within approximately 7 h, whereas rapid barcoding required approximately 40 h to reach the same output. Despite these differences, both methods produced identical VP1 consensus sequences across all samples, with comparable read quality (median per-base Q-scores of approximately Q17-Q18). Rapid barcoding provided substantial practical advantages, reducing hands-on library preparation time (55 vs. 200 min) and per-sample cost ($12.82 vs. $16.54), while simplifying workflow and reducing technical complexity. These findings indicate that sequencing yield may not be a determinant of downstream analytical outcomes for poliovirus VP1 ONT sequencing. Rapid barcoding therefore represents a cost-effective and efficient approach for routine poliovirus surveillance, whereas native barcoding remains advantageous in applications requiring rapid data generation or maximal sequencing depth.

Poliovirus↗

PubMed2005

Wedding biodiversity inventory of a large and complex Lepidoptera fauna with DNA barcoding.

By facilitating bioliteracy, DNA barcoding has the potential to improve the way the world relates to wild biodiversity. Here we describe the early stages of the use of cox1 barcoding to supplement and strengthen the taxonomic platform underpinning the inventory of thousands of sympatric species of caterpillars in tropical dry forest, cloud forest and rain forest in northwestern Costa Rica. The results show that barcoding a biologically complex biota unambiguously distinguishes among 97% of more than 1000 species of reared Lepidoptera. Those few species whose barcodes overlap are closely related and not confused with other species. Barcoding also has revealed a substantial number of cryptic species among morphologically defined species, associated sexes, and reinforced identification of species that are difficult to distinguish morphologically. For barcoding to achieve its full potential, (i) ability to rapidly and cheaply barcode older museum specimens is urgent, (ii) museums need to address the opportunity and responsibility for housing large numbers of barcode voucher specimens, (iii) substantial resources need be mustered to support the taxonomic side of the partnership with barcoding, and (iv) hand-held field-friendly barcorder must emerge as a mutualism with the taxasphere and the barcoding initiative, in a manner such that its use generates a resource base for the taxonomic process as well as a tool for the user.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

The unholy trinity: taxonomy, species delimitation and DNA barcoding.

Recent excitement over the development of an initiative to generate DNA sequences for all named species on the planet has in our opinion generated two major areas of contention as to how this 'DNA barcoding' initiative should proceed. It is critical that these two issues are clarified and resolved, before the use of DNA as a tool for taxonomy and species delimitation can be universalized. The first issue concerns how DNA data are to be used in the context of this initiative; this is the DNA barcode reader problem (or barcoder problem). Currently, many of the published studies under this initiative have used tree building methods and more precisely distance approaches to the construction of the trees that are used to place certain DNA sequences into a taxonomic context. The second problem involves the reaction of the taxonomic community to the directives of the 'DNA barcoding' initiative. This issue is extremely important in that the classical taxonomic approach and the DNA approach will need to be reconciled in order for the 'DNA barcoding' initiative to proceed with any kind of community acceptance. In fact, we feel that DNA barcoding is a misnomer. Our preference is for the title of the London meetings--Barcoding Life. In this paper we discuss these two concerns generated around the DNA barcoding initiative and attempt to present a phylogenetic systematic framework for an improved barcoder as well as a taxonomic framework for interweaving classical taxonomy with the goals of 'DNA barcoding'.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Critical factors for assembling a high volume of DNA barcodes.

Large-scale DNA barcoding projects are now moving toward activation while the creation of a comprehensive barcode library for eukaryotes will ultimately require the acquisition of some 100 million barcodes. To satisfy this need, analytical facilities must adopt protocols that can support the rapid, cost-effective assembly of barcodes. In this paper we discuss the prospects for establishing high volume DNA barcoding facilities by evaluating key steps in the analytical chain from specimens to barcodes. Alliances with members of the taxonomic community represent the most effective strategy for provisioning the analytical chain with specimens. The optimal protocols for DNA extraction and subsequent PCR amplification of the barcode region depend strongly on their condition, but production targets of 100K barcode records per year are now feasible for facilities working with compliant specimens. The analysis of museum collections is currently challenging, but PCR cocktails that combine polymerases with repair enzyme(s) promise future success. Barcode analysis is already a cost-effective option for species identification in some situations and this will increasingly be the case as reference libraries are assembled and analytical protocols are simplified.

Biodiversity↗

PubMed2006

A genomic perspective on the shortcomings of mitochondrial DNA for "barcoding" identification.

Approximately 600-bp sequences of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have been designated as "DNA barcodes" and have become one of the most contentious and animated issues in the application of genetic information to global biodiversity assessment and species identification. Advocates of DNA barcodes have received extensive attention and promotion in many popular and refereed scientific publications. However, we suggest that the utility of barcodes is suspect and vulnerable to technical challenges that are particularly pertinent to mtDNA. We review the natural history of mtDNA and discuss problems for barcoding which are particularly associated with mtDNA and inheritance, including reduced effective population size, maternal inheritance, recombination, inconsistent mutation rate, heteroplasmy, and compounding evolutionary processes. The aforementioned could significantly limit the application and utility of mtDNA barcoding efforts. Furthermore, global use of barcodes will require application and acceptance of a barcode-based species concept that has not been evaluated in the context of the extensive literature concerning species designation. Implementation of mtDNA barcodes in spite of technical and practical shortcomings we discuss may degrade the longstanding synthesis of genetic and organism-based research and will not advance studies ranging from genomic evolution to biodiversity assessment.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Usability of a barcode scanning system as a means of data entry on a PDA for self-report health outcome questionnaires: a pilot study in individuals over 60 years of age.

BACKGROUND: Throughout the medical and paramedical professions, self-report health status questionnaires are used to gather patient-reported outcome measures. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate in individuals over 60 years of age the usability of a PDA-based barcode scanning system with a text-to-speech synthesizer to collect data electronically from self-report health outcome questionnaires. METHODS: Usability of the system was tested on a sample of 24 community-living older adults (7 men, 17 women) ranging in age from 63 to 93 years. After receiving a brief demonstration on the use of the barcode scanner, participants were randomly assigned to complete two sets of 16 questions using the bar code wand scanner for one set and a pen for the other. Usability was assessed using directed interviews with a usability questionnaire and performance-based metrics (task times, errors, sources of errors). RESULTS: Overall, participants found barcode scanning easy to learn, easy to use, and pleasant. Participants were marginally faster in completing the 16 survey questions when using pen entry (20/24 participants). The mean response time with the barcode scanner was 31 seconds longer than traditional pen entry for a subset of 16 questions (p = 0.001). The responsiveness of the scanning system, expressed as first scan success rate, was less than perfect, with approximately one-third of first scans requiring a rescan to successfully capture the data entry. The responsiveness of the system can be explained by a combination of factors such as the location of the scanning errors, the type of barcode used as an answer field in the paper version, and the optical characteristics of the barcode scanner. CONCLUSION: The results presented in this study offer insights regarding the feasibility, usability and effectiveness of using a barcode scanner with older adults as an electronic data entry method on a PDA. While participants in this study found their experience with the barcode scanning system enjoyable and learned to become proficient in its use, the responsiveness of the system constitutes a barrier to wide-scale use of such a system. Optimizing the graphical presentation of the information on paper should significantly increase the system's responsiveness.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed2004

Identification of Birds through DNA Barcodes.

Short DNA sequences from a standardized region of the genome provide a DNA barcode for identifying species. Compiling a public library of DNA barcodes linked to named specimens could provide a new master key for identifying species, one whose power will rise with increased taxon coverage and with faster, cheaper sequencing. Recent work suggests that sequence diversity in a 648-bp region of the mitochondrial gene, cytochrome c oxidase I (COI), might serve as a DNA barcode for the identification of animal species. This study tested the effectiveness of a COI barcode in discriminating bird species, one of the largest and best-studied vertebrate groups. We determined COI barcodes for 260 species of North American birds and found that distinguishing species was generally straightforward. All species had a different COI barcode(s), and the differences between closely related species were, on average, 18 times higher than the differences within species. Our results identified four probable new species of North American birds, suggesting that a global survey will lead to the recognition of many additional bird species. The finding of large COI sequence differences between, as compared to small differences within, species confirms the effectiveness of COI barcodes for the identification of bird species. This result plus those from other groups of animals imply that a standard screening threshold of sequence difference (10x average intraspecific difference) could speed the discovery of new animal species. The growing evidence for the effectiveness of DNA barcodes as a basis for species identification supports an international exercise that has recently begun to assemble a comprehensive library of COI sequences linked to named specimens.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

A hybrid and cost-efficient barcoding strategy for full-length 16S rRNA gene nanopore sequencing of environmental samples.

BACKGROUND: Accurate species-level identification of bacteria in complex environmental samples is essential for applications in biotechnology, ecological monitoring, and clinical diagnostics. Short-read platforms such as Illumina frequently truncate the 16S rRNA gene, limiting taxonomic resolution. In this work, we applied Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) long-read sequencing to full-length 16S rRNA amplicon in samples from natural soil amended with lignocellulosic biomass and a simplified microbial community derived from cultures grown on selective and differential carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)-based substrates, with the aim to evaluate the difference in performance between a real, complex community and a less complex system. To reduce consumable costs, we substituted the standard ONT Barcoding kits with an in-house hybrid barcoding workflow. Specifically, PacBio PCR-based barcoding protocol was used for sample indexing, followed by library preparation using the ONT Ligation Sequencing Kit. This simplified approach retained compatibility with MinION and Flongle flow cells and supported accurate downstream demultiplexing while lowering barcode costs substantially. Additionally, a new bioinformatic workflow tailored to ONT data was implemented. RESULTS: Overall, the hybrid protocol significantly reduced per-sample barcoding costs while preserving high sequencing quality and throughput. The sequencing run yielded over 5 Gb of quality-filtered data (Q-score ≥ 10). Furthermore, the new bioinformatic workflow allowed taxonomic assignment at the species level for 49.38% of annotated taxa, compared to just 4.59% using Illumina NovaSeq sequencing of the V3-V4 region. ONT also recovered 2.3 times more genera and 1.3 times more families. Although 16S rRNA gene sequencing often cannot distinguish between closely related species, particularly within taxonomically complex groups, in this work, full-length reads substantially improved both taxonomic resolution and database matching. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that full-length 16S rRNA sequencing with ONT, paired with a low-cost barcoding strategy, enhanced taxonomic resolution compared to short-read workflows. This approach also offers a scalable and cost-effective option for high-resolution microbiome profiling in research and applied settings.

RNA, Ribosomal, 16S↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Encoding and decoding graphical chemical structures as two-dimensional (PDF417) barcodes.

A wide range of molecular representations exist today, ranging from human-readable structural diagrams over line notations such as Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN) and SMILES to several dozen computer-readable file formats. Still, to encode molecular structures in a computer-readable way for inputting structures in computer systems those formats are not the method of choice since they are not easily and faultlessly readable via optical recognition. In the present study a two-dimensional (PDF417) barcode representation of molecular structures in SMILES format is explored that enables the user to read and input molecular structures into computer systems in a fully automated fashion. A Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) based compressed version of SMILES is suggested for cases where the size of the structure exceeds the storage capacity of PDF417 barcodes. Alternatively, the compact ACS format may be employed as a structural representation. The input via barcodes is fast, practically error free due to the 2D barcodes used which employ error correction and fully automatic. A Web application interface is developed which is able to interpret these barcodes and export them as optimized 3D chemical structures. Applications of this representation range from keeping automated storage systems to Web-based tracking systems of molecular samples. The National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, employs 2D barcode encoded structures for in-house repository management, where barcodes can also be used for querying the database for similar or substructures of the query structure.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2005

Land plants and DNA barcodes: short-term and long-term goals.

Land plants have had the reputation of being problematic for DNA barcoding for two general reasons: (i) the standard DNA regions used in algae, animals and fungi have exceedingly low levels of variability and (ii) the typically used land plant plastid phylogenetic markers (e.g. rbcL, trnL-F, etc.) appear to have too little variation. However, no one has assessed how well current phylogenetic resources might work in the context of identification (versus phylogeny reconstruction). In this paper, we make such an assessment, particularly with two of the markers commonly sequenced in land plant phylogenetic studies, plastid rbcL and internal transcribed spacers of the large subunits of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS), and find that both of these DNA regions perform well even though the data currently available in GenBank/EBI were not produced to be used as barcodes and BLAST searches are not an ideal tool for this purpose. These results bode well for the use of even more variable regions of plastid DNA (such as, for example, psbA-trnH) as barcodes, once they have been widely sequenced. In the short term, efforts to bring land plant barcoding up to the standards being used now in other organisms should make swift progress. There are two categories of DNA barcode users, scientists in fields other than taxonomy and taxonomists. For the former, the use of mitochondrial and plastid DNA, the two most easily assessed genomes, is at least in the short term a useful tool that permits them to get on with their studies, which depend on knowing roughly which species or species groups they are dealing with, but these same DNA regions have important drawbacks for use in taxonomic studies (i.e. studies designed to elucidate species limits). For these purposes, DNA markers from uniparentally (usually maternally) inherited genomes can only provide half of the story required to improve taxonomic standards being used in DNA barcoding. In the long term, we will need to develop more sophisticated barcoding tools, which would be multiple, low-copy nuclear markers with sufficient genetic variability and PCR-reliability; these would permit the detection of hybrids and permit researchers to identify the 'genetic gaps' that are useful in assessing species limits.

Biodiversity↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Reducing medical errors through barcoding at the point of care.

Medical errors are a major concern in health care today. Errors in point-of-care testing (POCT) are particularly problematic because the test is conducted by clinical operators at the site of patient care and immediate medical action is taken on the results prior to review by the laboratory. The Performance Improvement Program at Baystate Health System, Springfield, Massachusetts, noted a number of identification errors occurring with glucose and blood gas POCT devices. Incorrect patient account numbers that were attached to POCT results prevented the results from being transmitted to the patient's medical record and appropriately billed. In the worst case, they could lead to results being transferred to the wrong patient's chart and inappropriate medical treatment. Our first action was to lock-out operators who repeatedly made identification errors (3-Strike Rule), requiring operators to be counseled and retrained after their third error. The 3-Strike Rule significantly decreased our glucose meter errors (p = 0.014) but did not have an impact on the rate of our blood gas errors (p = 0.378). Neither device approached our ultimate goal of zero tolerance. A Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) was conducted to determine the various processes that could lead to an identification error. A primary source of system failure was the manual entry of 14 digits for each test, five numbers for operator and nine numbers for patient account identification. Patient barcoding was implemented to automate the data entry process, and after an initial familiarization period, resulted in significant improvements in error rates for both the glucose (p = 0.0007) and blood gas devices (p = 0.048). Despite the improvements, error rates with barcoding still did not achieve zero errors. Operators continued to utilize manual data entry when the barcode scan was unsuccessful or unavailable, and some patients were found to have incorrect patient account numbers due to hospital transfer, multiple wristbands on a single patient, and selection of expired account numbers from previous hospitalizations when printing the barcoded wristbands. Barcoding can thus improve the incidence of identification errors, but hospitals need to take additional steps to ensure successful barcode scanning and to verify that patient wristbands contain correct information. Implementation of patient barcoding was successful in significantly reducing identification errors with POCT, improving patient care, and enhancing interdisciplinary communication.

Delivery of Health Care, Integrated↗

PubMed1985

A complete system for barcode generation on the HP-41CX hand-held computer using a standard thermal printer.

One of the unique features of the HP-41C hand-held computer is its ability to read program code and alphanumeric data in the form of printed barcode. This greatly facilitates the dissemination of medical software and data used by this system. Initially, the ability to generate HP-41 barcode was restricted to a few centers in possession of specialized microcomputer equipment, and more recently to users able to either obtain a plotter read-only memory (ROM) module and HP7400 series plotter, or a dot-matrix impact printer, for which a special interface was then required. This paper presents a set of twenty programs which allows all nine types of HP-41C barcode to be generated using an HP-41CX, the commonly encountered 82162A thermal printer, an HP-IL ROM, and the plotter ROM. The package includes a number of input/output routines which are of general utility. Complete barcode listings, generated by the system itself, allow complete installation of the system without use of the keyboard. 'Synthetic programming' code permits the use of helpful non-standard characters in the display and allows that part of the system which is concerned with generating program barcode to run in extended memory, freeing main memory (RAM) to hold a large program. This system should make the generation of barcode much more widely available.

Abstracting and Indexing↗

PubMed2006

DNA barcodes distinguish species of tropical Lepidoptera.

Although central to much biological research, the identification of species is often difficult. The use of DNA barcodes, short DNA sequences from a standardized region of the genome, has recently been proposed as a tool to facilitate species identification and discovery. However, the effectiveness of DNA barcoding for identifying specimens in species-rich tropical biotas is unknown. Here we show that cytochrome c oxidase I DNA barcodes effectively discriminate among species in three Lepidoptera families from Area de Conservación Guanacaste in northwestern Costa Rica. We found that 97.9% of the 521 species recognized by prior taxonomic work possess distinctive cytochrome c oxidase I barcodes and that the few instances of interspecific sequence overlap involve very similar species. We also found two or more barcode clusters within each of 13 supposedly single species. Covariation between these clusters and morphological and/or ecological traits indicates overlooked species complexes. If these results are general, DNA barcoding will significantly aid species identification and discovery in tropical settings.

Animals↗

PubMed1984

The feasibility of barcode-based dispensing quality assurance programs.

A study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of using barcodes in an outpatient pharmacy quality assurance program. In the first step of this study, adhesive labels containing a barcode representation of the National Drug Code (NDC) identification for the hospital's formulary medications were printed for each stock bottle or drug package used in dispensing. When an outpatient prescription was presented to the pharmacist, a label containing a barcode representation of the NDC identification for the prescribed medication was generated on-line and attached to the back of the prescription form. After the prescription item was filled by the pharmacist, an automated check was performed with a scanning wand by comparing the barcode on the prescription with the previously generated barcode on the stock bottle or drug packaging. A match indicated that the correct medication had been dispensed. Elaborations on this basic automated system for a barcode-based dispensing quality assurance program are suggested.

Computers↗

PubMed2005

DNA barcoding: error rates based on comprehensive sampling.

DNA barcoding has attracted attention with promises to aid in species identification and discovery; however, few well-sampled datasets are available to test its performance. We provide the first examination of barcoding performance in a comprehensively sampled, diverse group (cypraeid marine gastropods, or cowries). We utilize previous methods for testing performance and employ a novel phylogenetic approach to calculate intraspecific variation and interspecific divergence. Error rates are estimated for (1) identifying samples against a well-characterized phylogeny, and (2) assisting in species discovery for partially known groups. We find that the lowest overall error for species identification is 4%. In contrast, barcoding performs poorly in incompletely sampled groups. Here, species delineation relies on the use of thresholds, set to differentiate between intraspecific variation and interspecific divergence. Whereas proponents envision a "barcoding gap" between the two, we find substantial overlap, leading to minimal error rates of approximately 17% in cowries. Moreover, error rates double if only traditionally recognized species are analyzed. Thus, DNA barcoding holds promise for identification in taxonomically well-understood and thoroughly sampled clades. However, the use of thresholds does not bode well for delineating closely related species in taxonomically understudied groups. The promise of barcoding will be realized only if based on solid taxonomic foundations.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

[Standardization of barcodes used for sample identification].

In the clinical laboratory, they are mainly using one-dimensional barcode (simply, barcode) for the sample identification. It has been proposed an international standard for the barcode by NCCLS with the cooperation of JCCLS and CODE128 was selected for its symbol. Other details for it also can be found in this article. The committee of JSCC has started to discuss a barcode for the next generation so that more information can be conveyed on test tubes. A two-dimensional symbol barcode (2D barcode) is one system. NCCLS is interested in this act and therefore cooperation is anticipated in the development of international standards.

Electronic Data Processing↗

PubMed2006

DNA barcoding Korean birds.

DNA barcoding, an inventory of DNA sequences from a standardized genomic region, provides a bio-barcode for identifying and discovering species. Several recent studies suggest that the sequence diversity in a 648 bp region of the mitochondrial gene for cytochrome c oxi- dase I (COI) might serve as a DNA barcode for identify- ing animal species such as North American birds, in- sects and fishes. The present study tested the effective- ness of a COI barcode in discriminating Korean bird species. We determined the 5' terminus of the COI bar- code for 92 species of Korean birds and found that spe- cies identification was unambiguous; the genetic differ- ences between closely related species were, on average, 25 times higher than the differences within species. We identified only one misidentified species out of 239 specimens in a genetic resource bank, so confirming the accuracy of species identification in the banking system. We also identified two potential composite species, calling for further investigation using more samples. The finding of large COI sequence differences between species confirms the effectiveness of COI barcodes for identifying Korean bird species. To bring greater reliability to the identification of species, increased in- tra- and interspecies sampling, as well as supplementa- tion of the mitochondrial barcodes with nuclear ones, is needed.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Is There a Fly in My Soup? To What Extent Do Metabarcoding and Individual Barcoding Tell the Same Story?

Metabarcoding has become the method of choice for characterizing complex arthropod communities. The extent to which metabarcoded bulk samples will recover the same community composition as individual sequencing of all individuals in the sample remains poorly quantified. Biases such as unequal extraction of DNA from different taxa, primer mismatches and non-random PCR may cause the selective drop-out of species from metabarcoding data. At the same time, DNA metabarcoding may reveal arthropod taxa present not as individuals, but as DNA residues on the surface or in the gut of insects. To quantify the consistency in sample contents established by different means, we metabarcoded 45 bulk insect samples, then extracted all arthropods and sequenced them individually. Metabarcoding targeted 418 bp at the 3' end of the Folmer barcoding region, while individual barcodes captured the entire 658 bp Folmer region. The metabarcoding workflow, including PCR amplification, sequencing and bioinformatics, was performed in three replicates from three separate lysate aliquots per sample. For the main analyses, sequences were assigned to Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) as identical taxonomic categories across data types, thereby allowing the detection of even rare but biologically true taxa. Since such reference-based validation will be unavailable to any researcher dealing with metabarcoding data alone, we validated our key findings through an alternative workflow, i.e., de novo clustering of sequences. We found that metabarcoding is replicable, as different replicates of the same sample recover similar species richness and composition. Individual barcoding and metabarcoding provide similar impressions of relative differences in community structure: species-rich vs. species-poor samples rank similarly among data types (Spearman's ⍴ = 0.88-0.99) as do differences in relative dissimilarity between sample pairs (Spearman's ⍴ = 0.55-0.90). Dissimilarity between data types varies with BIN richness in the sample, but this relationship reflects nestedness rather than turnover: metabarcoding recovers the same set of core species as individual barcoding but adds hundreds of species on top. Any BIN recovered as an individual occurred with high probability in the metabarcoding data, and any BIN found in high read abundances by metabarcoding was likely found as an individual (p > 0.8). In terms of abundances, the number of individual insects per BIN was well predicted by the number of metabarcoding reads (R2 > 0.68 for a model including taxonomy as a random effect). Our analysis suggests that metabarcoding data will be informative of the sample contents in terms of arthropod species richness, composition and taxon-specific abundances. Taxa recovered in low copy numbers in metabarcoding sequence data will likely represent DNA left as residues from past biotic interactions. Barring sequencing errors, both types of data yield biologically relevant insights into the taxa present in the source community.

Animals↗