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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2006

The relationship between age and baseball pitching kinematics in professional baseball pitchers.

Joint range of motion and physical capacities have been shown to change with age in both throwing athletes and non-athletes. The age of professional baseball pitchers could span from late teens to mid-40s. However, the effects of age on the pitching kinematics among professional baseball pitchers are still unknown. In this study, 67 healthy professional baseball pitchers were tested using a 3D motion analysis system. Their mean age was 23.7+/-3.3 years (range 18.8-34.4). The 12 pitchers more than one standard deviation older than the mean (i.e., older than 27.0 years) were categorized into the older group, and the 10 pitchers more than one standard deviation younger than the mean (i.e., younger than 20.4 years) were defined as the younger group. In all, 18 kinematic variables (14 position and 4 velocity) were calculated, and Student's t-tests were used to compare the variables between the two groups. Six position variables were found to be significantly different between the two groups. At the instant of lead foot contact, the older group had a shorter stride, a more closed pelvis orientation, and a more closed upper trunk orientation. The older group also produced less shoulder external rotation during the arm cocking phase, more lead knee flexion at ball release, and less forward trunk tilt at ball release. Ball velocity and body segment velocity variables showed no significant differences between the two groups. Thus, differences in specific pitching kinematic variables among professional baseball pitchers of different age groups were not associated with significant differences in ball velocities between groups. The current results suggest that both biological changes and technique adaptations occur during the career of a professional baseball pitcher.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Baseball and softball sliding injuries. Incidence, and the effect of technique in collegiate baseball and softball players.

We prospectively observed seven softball and three baseball Division I collegiate teams to study the incidence of sliding injuries, the types of injuries resulting from the sliding technique, and the amount of time lost from participation. Slides were categorized as either feet- or head-first on the basis of the leading part of the body during the slide. Slides were further stratified depending on whether a diveback technique was performed. We recorded 37 injuries in 3889 slides in 637 games and 7596 athlete game exposures. The overall incidence of sliding injuries was 9.51 per 1000 slides and 4.87 per 1000 game exposures. Softball players had a significantly higher incidence of sliding injuries (12.13 per 1000 slides) than did baseball players (6.01 per 1000 slides). In baseball, the injury rate was higher for feet-first slides (7.31 per 1000 slides) than for headfirst slides (3.53 per 1000 slides) or divebacks (5.75 per 1000 divebacks). In softball, injury rates were higher for head-first slides (19.46 per 1000 slides) than for feet-first slides (10.04 per 1000 slides) or divebacks (7.49 per 1000 divebacks). The majority of injuries sustained were minor, with only four (11%) injuries causing the athlete to miss more than 7 days of participation.

Athletic Injuries↗
PubMed1999

Baseball hardness as a risk factor for eye injuries.

BACKGROUND: Baseball is the leading cause of sports-related eye injuries in young persons. It is known that softer baseballs reduce the potential for brain and cardiac injury, but it has been speculated that softer baseballs may increase eye injuries by intruding more into the orbit. It also has been claimed that softer baseballs would change the "feel" of the game. OBJECTIVES: To determine the orbital intrusion and eye injury potential of baseballs of varying hardness, and whether a player can feel the difference between these different baseballs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Orbital force and penetration of baseballs of various hardness into an artificial orbit. Ability of subjects of varying age and baseball experience to determine the hardness of baseballs. RESULTS: The peak orbital force and force onset rate from softer baseballs, at all impact velocities, were less than the force and force onset rate from baseballs that had hardness equal to, or greater than, major league baseballs. The softest (10% of major league hardness) baseballs intruded into the orbit significantly more than balls that were 15% of major league hardness or harder. Children younger than 14 years could not differentiate balls 15% of major league hardness or harder, and adults could not differentiate 20% of major league hardness or harder from each other or from major league balls. CONCLUSION: The potential for injury to the unprotected eye from soft baseballs is significant, but not greater than that from a major league baseball. Baseballs that are 15% to 20% of major league ball hardness are recommended for youth baseball because these balls feel like major league balls, reduce the potential for brain injury and commotio cordis, cause less pain on impact, and do not increase the potential for eye injury to the unprotected player. Eye injuries in youth baseball could be minimized by the use of protective eyewear that conforms to the standard specifications of the American Society of Testing and Materials (Philadelphia, Pa), standards F910 (for batters and baserunners) and F803 (for fielders).

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Effects of throwing overweight and underweight baseballs on throwing velocity and accuracy.

The purpose of this review is to determine how throwing overweight and underweight baseballs affects baseball throwing velocity and accuracy. Two studies examined how a warm-up with overweight baseballs affected throwing velocity and accuracy of 5 oz regulation baseballs. One of these studies showed significant increases in throwing velocity and accuracy, while the other study found no significant differences. Three training studies (6 to 12 weeks in duration) using overweight baseballs were conducted to determine how they affected ball accuracy while throwing regulation baseballs. No significant differences were found in any study. From these data it is concluded that warming up or training with overweight baseballs does not improve ball accuracy. Seven overweight and 4 underweight training studies (6 to 12 weeks in duration) were conducted to determine how throwing velocity of regulation baseballs was affected due to training with these overweight and underweight baseballs. The overweight baseballs ranged in weight from 5.25 to 17 oz, while the underweight baseballs were between 4 and 4.75 oz. Data from these training studies strongly support the practice of training with overweight and underweight baseballs to increase throwing velocity of regulation baseballs. Since no injuries were reported throughout the training studies, throwing overweight and underweight baseballs may not be more stressful to the throwing arm compared to throwing regulation baseballs. However, since currently there are no injury data related to throwing overweight and underweight baseballs, this should be the focus of subsequent studies. In addition, research should be initiated to determine whether throwing kinematics and kinetics are different between throwing regulation baseballs and throwing overweight and underweight baseballs.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Injury reduction and bounce characteristics of safety baseballs and acceptability by youth leagues.

The only reasonable way to reduce the potential for ball-related youth baseball injuries sustained by the defensive players (the majority of ball-related injuries) is to make the ball less injurious. The American Academy of Pediatrics' 1994 statement on youth baseball injuries in this regard reads, "Consideration should be given to utilizing low-impact NOCSAE-approved baseballs and softballs for children 5 to 14 years of age, if these balls demonstrate satisfactory playing characteristics and reduce injury risk. A variety of studies should be undertaken to determine the efficacy of low-impact balls in reducing serious impact injuries." The purpose of this study, in accordance with this AAP policy, is to investigate the following: A) injury reduction potential of softer baseballs, B) their bounce characteristics, and C) their acceptability by youth leagues. Six simple injury models were studied, baseball bounce characteristics were analyzed, and attitudes of safety baseballs among statewide Little League district presidents were surveyed. Injury models demonstrated less injury potential with safety baseballs compared to that with standard hard baseballs. Safety baseballs bounced higher after vertical drops and slow throws, but during fast throws (with the greatest injury potential), the bounce heights were similar for all ball types. Of 27 survey cards sent out, 13 were returned. While 9 respondents indicated that they were already using safety baseballs for the younger players, none of the 13 respondents indicated that they were planning to expand the use of safety baseballs in their leagues. In conclusion, safety baseballs are less injurious in these models. The bounce characteristics of safety baseballs are satisfactory. Youth baseball league officials are not very willing to expand the use of safety baseballs. We recommend using safety baseballs as a standard for all youth baseball leagues because these balls are safer.

Athletic Injuries↗
PubMed2002

Reduced risk of sudden death from chest wall blows (commotio cordis) with safety baseballs.

OBJECTIVES: In an experimental model of sudden death from baseball chest wall impact (commotio cordis), we sought to determine if sudden death by baseball impact could be reduced with safety baseballs. BACKGROUND: Sudden cardiac death can occur after chest wall impact with a baseball (commotio cordis). Whether softer-than-standard (safety) baseballs reduce the risk of sudden death is unresolved from the available human data. In a juvenile swine model, ventricular fibrillation (VF) has been shown to be induced reproducibly by precordial impact with a 30-mph baseball 10 to 30 ms before the T-wave peak, and this likelihood was reduced with the softest safety baseballs (T-balls). To further test whether safety baseballs would reduce the risk of sudden death at velocities more relevant to youth sports competition, we used our swine model of commotio cordis to test baseballs propelled at the 40-mph velocity commonly attained in that sport. METHODS: Forty animals received up to 3 chest wall impacts at 40 mph during the vulnerable period of repolarization for VF with 1 of 3 different safety baseballs of varying hardness, and also by a standard baseball. RESULTS: Safety baseballs propelled at 40 mph significantly reduced the risk for VF. The softest safety baseballs triggered VF in only 11% of impacts, compared with 19% and 22% with safety baseballs of intermediate hardness, and 69% with standard baseballs. CONCLUSION: In this experimental model of low-energy chest wall impact, safety baseballs reduced (but did not abolish) the risk of sudden cardiac death. More universal use of these safety baseballs may decrease the risk of sudden death on the playing field for young athletes.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Intensive baseball practice improves the Go/Nogo reaction time, but not the simple reaction time.

Baseball hitters are required to make decisions whether to swing or not as quickly as possible. Therefore, we can assume that skilled baseball players have a quicker response. To verify this hypothesis, we assessed the effect of baseball experience or skill levels on simple reaction times and Go/Nogo reaction times in 82 university students (22 baseball players, 22 tennis players, and 38 nonathletes) and 17 professional baseball players. Also, to clarify whether this ability was innate or acquired, we examined the effects of long-term practice for baseball hitting in 94 senior high school students (26 baseball players and 68 non-baseball players). There were no differences in simple reaction time either for sports experience or for skill levels. On the contrary, the Go/Nogo reaction time for baseball players was significantly shorter than that of the tennis players and nonathletes. The Go/Nogo reaction time of higher-skill baseball players was significantly shorter than that of lower-skill players, while that of the professional baseball players was the shortest. The professional players showed the highest (almost linear) correlation between the Go/Nogo reaction time and simple reaction time. A longitudinal study showed that 2 years of hitting practice improved the Go/Nogo reaction time, while the simple reaction time remained constant. A cross-sectional study of high school non-baseball players showed no differences either in the simple or Go/Nogo reaction times in relation to school year. In conclusion, intensive practice, including Go or Nogo decision making, improved the Go/Nogo reaction time, but not the simple reaction time.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Spit (Smokeless)-Tobacco Use by Baseball Players Entering the Professional Ranks.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence and characteristics of spit (smokeless)-tobacco (ST) use in rookie baseball players as they enter the professional ranks and to identify factors associated with use before entering professional baseball. DESIGN AND SETTING: This cross-sectional study was an anonymous questionnaire survey administered during the 1999 baseball season by professional baseball athletic trainers at 30 professional baseball clubs. SUBJECTS: The target group was all rookie professional baseball players entering professional baseball. Of 862 eligible players in the summer of 1999, 616 participated in the survey. MEASUREMENTS: The questionnaire assessed tobacco use, demographic variables relevant to rookie professional baseball players, and factors hypothesized to be associated with current ST use (ie, other forms of tobacco use, social norms, environmental cues, and risky behavior intentions). Univariate associations with ST use were described by relative risks with 95% confidence intervals. For continuous variables, mean values of ST users and nonusers were compared. RESULTS: Overall, 67% of the players had tried ST and 31% were current users. Significant risk factors for ST use were being a current cigarette or cigar smoker, having a family member who used ST, and perceiving ST use by peers and role models. CONCLUSIONS: Almost one third of rookie baseball players in the 1999 season were regular ST users on entering professional baseball. Interventions for prevention and cessation of the use of ST targeting young baseball players are needed.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1998

Blunt chest impacts: assessing the relative risk of fatal cardiac injury from various baseballs.

OBJECTIVE: To compare various soft-core baseballs for their ability to reduce the risk of fatal chest-impact injury. DESIGN: This study used a three-rib biomechanical surrogate to quantitatively analyze chest impacts from nine soft-core baseballs and one standard baseball, which served as the control. Impacts were achieved with an air cannon system, with the velocity of impact being 40, 50, and 60 mph. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The deflection of the three-rib structure at the sternum was measured and used to calculate the viscous criterion, which correlates with risk of chest-impact injury. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Analysis showed that baseballs with lighter mass had a significantly lower viscous criterion (p < 0.05). Those with a similar mass had no change in the viscous criterion, and the heaviest soft-core baseball had a significantly higher viscous criterion at an impact velocity of 60 mph. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that soft-core baseballs may not differ from a standard baseball with regard to the risk of fatal chest-impact injury while playing baseball. Other techniques, such as preventive coaching, need to be implemented when trying to improve baseball safety.

Baseball↗
PubMed2005

Repair of full-thickness rotator cuff tears in professional baseball players.

BACKGROUND: Despite the relative frequency of partial-thickness rotator cuff tears seen in baseball players, full-thickness rotator cuff tears in baseball players are uncommon. HYPOTHESIS: Return to competitive baseball is difficult after surgical treatment of a full-thickness rotator cuff tear. STUDY DESIGN: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. METHODS: We evaluated the results of 16 professional baseball players after a mini-open repair of a full-thickness rotator cuff tear. Twelve patients were pitchers with injury to their dominant shoulders. Four patients were position players; 2 had injuries involving their dominant shoulders, and 2 had injuries to their nondominant shoulders. RESULTS: At a mean follow-up of 66.6 months for the pitchers, only 1 player (8%) was able to return to a high competitive level of baseball with no significant shoulder dysfunction after mini-open repair of a full-thickness rotator cuff tear. Of the 2 position players with mini-open repairs of the full-thickness rotator cuff tear of their dominant shoulders, 1 was able to return to professional baseball. Of the 2 position players with mini-open repairs of the full-thickness rotator cuff tear of their nondominant shoulders, both were able to return to professional baseball at the same or higher level. CONCLUSION: It is very difficult for a professional baseball pitcher to return to a competitive level of pitching after a full-thickness rotator cuff repair with a mini-open approach.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Baseball hitting, binocular vision, and the Pulfrich phenomenon.

OBJECTIVES: To determine if dimming the light to 1 eye affects baseball hitting (motion-in-depth) and if binocular interaction influences the ability to hit a baseball. METHODS: The ability to hit baseballs in a batting cage was measured under conditions of (1) no filter before either eye, (2) neutral density filters before both eyes, and (3) a neutral density filter before 1 eye, while viewing with both eyes. Batting scores were based on the number of hits, fouls, and misses. RESULTS: A neutral density filter of 0.6 optical density before both eyes had no significant effect on batting ability compared with no filter (87% vs 94%). While viewing binocularly, a filter before 1 eye caused a significantly greater reduction in hitting scores than when the filter was placed before the opposite eye (36% vs 80%). This greater effect of 1 eye on hitting scores denotes an ocular preference or dominance within the motion stereopsis system. The eye associated with the greater reduction in hitting ability when dimmed by a filter was termed the dominant eye for motion stereopsis. In comparison with placing 0.6-optical density filters before both eyes, the same filter before the dominant eye reduced hitting ability (36% vs 87%), but when the filter was placed before the nondominant eye, the hitting ability was not significantly reduced (80% vs 87%). The batting scores decreased as filter densities increased from 0.3- to 0.6-optical density, and the effect was significantly more for the dominant eye than for the nondominant eye. CONCLUSIONS: Binocular vision contributes to the precise localization of a pitched baseball, and one eye influences baseball hitting more than the other eye. The motion-in-depth channel (baseball hitting) shares a sensitivity to unequal binocular illumination with the sideways-motion channel (Pulfrich phenomenon). The timing of the impulses conducted from the eyes appears to be critical for the precise localization of objects processed by either the motion-in-depth (baseball hitting) or the sideways-motion (Pulfrich phenomenon) channels.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

The effect of laser refractive surgery on the on-field performance of professional baseball players.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of laser refractive surgery on the offensive performance of professional baseball players. METHODS: Extensive search of the public media was conducted to determine which major league baseball players had undergone laser refractive surgery and when the procedure was performed. Baseball performance data were then used to determine presurgery and postsurgery baseball performance averages. A total of 17 position players were identified; however, 5 of these players were not considered in the analysis owing to insufficient playing experience either before or after the laser procedure. RESULTS: No statistically significant or practically significant difference was found between the presurgery and postsurgery means on either on-base percentage (P = 0.31), batting average (P = 0.39), slugging percentage (P = 0.66) or on-base plus slugging (OPS; P = 0.997) of major league baseball players. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings suggest that professional baseball players should not expect a laser refractive surgical procedure to significantly improve their offensive baseball performance, despite the elimination of glasses or contact lens wear.

Baseball↗
PubMed2000

Spit (smokeless) tobacco use by high school baseball athletes in California.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence, patterns, and correlates of spit (smokeless) tobacco (ST) use in a sample of high school baseball athletes in California. DESIGN: This cross sectional study was a survey of 1226 baseball athletes attending 39 California high schools that were randomly selected from a list of all publicly supported high schools with baseball teams. At a baseball team meeting, athletes who agreed to participate and had parental consent completed the study questionnaire. To enhance the accuracy of self reported ST use status, a saliva sample was collected from each subject. The questionnaires and saliva samples were coded and salivary cotinine assay was performed on a random subsample of 5% of non-users who also were non-smokers. Biochemical assay indicated that 2% tested positive for cotinine inconsistent with self reported ST non-use. RESULTS: Overall, 46% had ever used ST and 15% were current users. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CI) suggested that, among high school baseball athletes, age, living in a rural area, being white, smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, not knowing about the adverse effects of ST, perceiving little personal risk associated with ST use, and believing that friends, role models, teammates, and same age baseball athletes in general used ST, increased the likelihood of being an ST user. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate that considerable experimentation with ST products occurs among high school baseball athletes in California, and many are current users. ST interventions targeting this population are needed to stop the transition from experimental ST use to tobacco dependence. Correlates of ST use for consideration in future intervention studies are identified.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Correlation of range of motion and glenohumeral translation in professional baseball pitchers.

BACKGROUND: Altered mobility patterns in the throwing shoulders of professional baseball pitchers have been reported. Most published reports examining glenohumeral laxity have not used an objective testing device. OBJECTIVE: Quantify and compare glenohumeral translation and rotational range of motion between the throwing and non-throwing shoulders in professional baseball pitchers. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive laboratory study. METHODS: Force-displacement and range of motion measures were performed bilaterally on 43 asymptomatic professional baseball pitchers. Ultrasound imaging was used to measure glenohumeral translations under stressed and unstressed conditions. RESULTS: No significant difference in translation was found between the throwing and nonthrowing shoulders. For both shoulders, posterior translation (5.38 +/- 2.7 mm) was significantly greater (P < .001) than was anterior translation (2.81 +/- 1.6 mm). External rotation in the throwing shoulder was significantly greater than that in the nonthrowing shoulder (P < .001), whereas internal rotation in the throwing shoulder was significantly less than that in the nonthrowing shoulder (P < .001). The total arc of rotation for the throwing shoulder was not significantly different than that for the nonthrowing shoulder, and correlation coefficients were poor between rotational and translational range of motion in the throwing shoulder, ranging from r = 0.232 to 0.209 between variables. CONCLUSION: No significant difference in glenohumeral translation exists between the throwing and nonthrowing shoulders in asymptomatic professional baseball pitchers, posterior translation is significantly greater than anterior translation in the throwing shoulders of professional baseball pitchers, and glenohumeral translation is not related to rotational range of motion in the throwing shoulders of professional baseball pitchers. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Altered mobility patterns in asymptomatic professional baseball pitchers may be due to factors other than capsular adaptive changes.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Evaluation of safety balls and faceguards for prevention of injuries in youth baseball.

CONTEXT: Safety balls and faceguards are widely used in youth baseball, but their effectiveness in reducing injury is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association of the use of faceguards and safety balls and injuries in youth baseball. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Ecological study using a national database of compensated insurance claims maintained by Little League Baseball Incorporated, combined with data on the number of participants in Little League and data from a census of protective equipment usage for youth aged 5 to 18 years participating in Little League Baseball in the United States during 1997-1999. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rate of injury and injury rate ratio comparing users with nonusers of protective equipment. RESULTS: A total of 6 744 240 player-seasons of follow-up and 4233 compensated injury claims were available for analysis. The absolute incidence of compensated injury per 100 000 player-seasons was 28.02 (95% confidence interval [CI], 26.76-29.29) for ball-related injury and 2.71 (95% CI, 2.32-3.11) for facial injury. Overall, use of safety balls was associated with a reduced risk of ball-related injury (adjusted rate ratio, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.64-0.93). This reduction was essentially due to 1 type of safety ball, known as the reduced-impact ball (adjusted rate ratio, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.57-0.91). Use of faceguards reduced the risk of facial injury (adjusted rate ratio, 0.65; 95% CI, 0.43-0.98). Metal and plastic guards appeared to be equally effective. Safety balls appeared to be more effective in the minor division (ages 7-12 years) than in the regular division (ages 9-12 years). CONCLUSIONS: Reduced-impact balls and faceguards were associated with a reduced risk of injury in youth baseball. These findings support increased usage of these items; however, it should be noted that the absolute incidence of injury in youth baseball is low and that these equipment items do not prevent all injuries.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Ulnar nerve conduction velocity in injured baseball pitchers.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the ulnar nerve conduction velocity (NCV) of baseball pitchers without elbow injury to baseball pitchers with elbow injury and to persons who do not play baseball. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Hospital rehabilitation department. PARTICIPANTS: Eight college baseball pitchers without elbow injury, 8 age-matched controls who did not play baseball, and 8 college baseball pitchers with a history of elbow injury with tenderness over the cubital tunnel area. INTERVENTION: Supramaximal electric stimulation was applied superficially to the ulnar nerve at the wrist, below the elbow, and above the elbow of both the dominant and nondominant arms of all subjects. M waves were recorded from the abductor digiti minimi muscles. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The ulnar NCV was calculated separately for the across-elbow and below-elbow segments. The ulnar NCVs of both arms of the 3 groups were compared by using a 2-way (arm by group) analysis of variance, with a statistical significance level of P less than .05. RESULTS: The ulnar NCVs were 64.40+/-7.34m/s, 54.97+/-8.67m/s, and 59.18+/-4.10m/s for the pitchers without injury, pitchers with injury, and the subjects who were not pitchers, respectively. The pitchers without injury were significantly faster than the other 2 groups. For pitchers without injury, the ulnar NCVs of the dominant arm were significantly faster than those of the nondominant arm (56.26+/-2.63m/s). No significant difference was found between the dominant and nondominant arms for the group of injured pitchers and for the group of subjects who were not pitchers. CONCLUSIONS: The ulnar NCVs of the injured pitchers did not appear to be abnormal, but were suboptimal in comparison with the noninjured pitchers. The above-normal NCVs observed in the noninjured pitchers may be the result of an adaptation to trauma associated with ball throwing.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Observations in the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum: doing gender in Cooperstown.

This study explored the extent and type of men and women's relationship to baseball at the end of the 20th century. Unobtrusive observations of the behaviors and comments of visitors to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York, were undertaken during a 7-day period to explore how men and women related to baseball. The "doing of gender" by visitors was observed in several areas: (a) historical and personal connection to baseball, (b) ability to experience a bond with others through baseball, and (c) approach to touring the Hall of Fame and Museum. Women generally were seen as outsiders and peripheral to baseball and often connected to the sport in a manner different from men.

Adolescent↗