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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2003

Lead contamination of soils in Belize City, Belize, Central America.

In order to assess the amount and distribution of lead pollution in soils in Belize City, Belize, seventy-five samples were collected from three distinct areas around the city (roadsides, houses, and playgrounds and schools). This study has provided data to establish the first soil lead database for Belize City, Belize. The soil samples generally exhibited pH values above 7, less than 18% organic matter, and more than 50% sand was found in 92% of the samples. These physical and chemical characteristics prevent the lead from accumulating in the upper layers of soil. However, high or hazardous levels were found in all sample categories. In the schoolyards and playgrounds category. the levels range from 3 ppm to 780 ppm, and average 131 ppm. The roadside samples had a range of 3 ppm to 5450 ppm, and average 445 ppm. The housing samples had the highest concentrations, with the range from 9 ppm to 104, 500 ppm and an average of 638 ppm. The geographic distribution of lead within the city appears to be somewhat random, although the most contaminated areas are generally in the south part of the city. The distance to potential source of contamination, for example peeling paint or a road, affects lead concentration, as does percent of organic matter in the soil. The physical characteristics that normally aid in the retention of lead in soil are not generally present in Belize City; however, the lead levels are dangerously high.

Belize↗
PubMed1997

Metals of the bottom muds in Belize City Harbor, Belize.

Seven bottom samples extending from the ocean up through Belize Harbor and City were acid leached (EPA method 200.7) and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma spectrometry to measure the bioavailability of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn. Soil and environmental chemists would compare data to world averages of unpolluted soils, these samples were higher than this average by a factor of 10 for Cd, 4 for Cu, 2.7 for Zn and 2.6 for Pb. Geochemists argue that it's hard to find unpolluted soil so their comparison is with world average of ancient (pre-man) shales and the Belize samples were higher than this shale average by a factor of 30 for Cd, 3.7 for Pb, 2.2 for Cu and 1.7 for Zn. Ecologists would argue that the metal effect on the biota is the correct way to analyze the data by using the biological effects toxicity method, and this way the samples were above the lower limit by a factor of 5.1 for Cd, 2.9 for Cu and 1.6 for Pb. By all three lines of reasoning, it can be concluded that Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn, in that order, pose environmental problems. Since this site is located in the middle of Belize Barrier Reef, a highly sensitive environmental area that is also economically important to Belize, it poses a critical problem that needs to be addressed further.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Prevalence of antibody to Trypanosoma cruzi in three populations in Belize.

Cross-sectional studies were conducted to determine the prevalence of antibody to Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas' disease among three populations in Belize. Specimens were tested using a second-generation enzyme-linked immunoassay (EIA). Confirmatory testing with three single-antigen EIAs and a radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) were performed. Five (0.5%) of 962 blood donors at the Belize City Hospital were reactive including four (6%) of 65 donors from countries known to be endemic for Chagas' disease and one (0.1%) of 861 from Belize (P < 0.001). Among 467 healthy members of the Belize Defense Force, none were reactive. The third group included workers and families primarily from other Central American countries living on a banana plantation in a rural area of the country. Twenty-seven (6.1%) of 442 sera were reactive. The prevalence was 5.3% of 75 < 15 years of age, 4.2% of 236 15-34 years of age, and 9.7% of 124 > or = 35 years of age (P = 0.11, by chi-square for trend). The prevalence was similar in males (6.7% of 280) and females (5.8% of 154). The prevalence of those born in Belize (4 of 56, 7.1%) was similar with that of those born in El Salvador (9 of 110, 8.2%), Guatemala (6 of 117, 5.1%), and Honduras (8 of 129, 6.2%). Of the four persons with reactive sera who were born in Belize, the immigrant mother of one was also reactive, suggesting possible congenital transmission. Among 31 sera repeatedly reactive by EIA to T. cruzi that were further studied, 22 (71%) were reactive by at least two of three single-antigen confirmatory EIAs and 29 (94%) by RIPA. Additional studies should focus on the epidemiology of T. cruzi and ways to reduce risk of transfusion-related infections in Belize.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Spatial correlations of mapped malaria rates with environmental factors in Belize, Central America.

BACKGROUND: The purposes of this study were to map overall malaria incidence rates from 1989 through 1999 for villages in Belize; to assess the seasonal distribution of malaria incidence by region; and to correlate malaria incidence rates with vegetation cover and rivers in villages, using geographic information system technology.Malaria information on 156 villages was obtained from an electronic database maintained by the Belize National Malaria Control Program. Average annual malaria incidence rates per 1000 population over 10 years were calculated for villages using the 1991 population census as a denominator. Malaria incidence rates were integrated with vegetation cover from a 1995 vegetation map, and with river data from a digital data set. RESULTS: Mapping malaria incidence over the 10-year period in the study villages indicated the existence of a spatial pattern: the southern and western areas of Belize had consistently higher rates of malaria than northern areas. Examination of the seasonal distribution of malaria incidence by month over 10 years indicated that a statistically significant difference existed among districts and among months (p < 0.05). Spatial analysis of malaria incidence rates and of vegetation in Belize showed villages with high malaria rates having more broadleaf hill forests, agricultural land, and wetland vegetation types (i.e. SWF-seasonally waterlogged fire-induced shrubland of the plains). Statistical and spatial analyses of malaria incidence and of river distributions in Belize determined the high 10 percentile malaria incidence villages in western and southern Belize to have more rivers within two kilometers of the center of a village and a statistically significant correlation between proximity to rivers and villages (Spearman's gamma = -0.23; p < 0.05), especially in Stann Creek District (Spearman's gamma = -0.82; p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Examination of the distribution of malaria during 10 years indicated transmission varied among geographic areas and among seasons. Additional studies are needed to examine, in more detail, the association between environmental and meteorological factors and malaria transmission. Furthermore, the role of An. darlingi in malaria transmission in Stann Creek needs further study since, of the three main vectors in Belize, An. darlingi has been found strongly associated with rivers.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

Plasmodium vivax polymorphs and Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite proteins in Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) from Belize, Central America.

Eight species of Anopheles mosquitoes from indoor/outdoor human landing collections in Belize, Central America, were examined for human Plasmodium circumsporozoite protein (CSP) using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A total of 14 of 9,104 females tested were positive from general surveys throughout Belize and three of 11,966 were positive from a longitudinal study in Caledonia, northern Belize. ELISA results, using pooled head-thorax preparations and species-specific monoclonal antibodies directed against the circumsporozoite proteins of Plasmodium falciparum and two Plasmodium vivax polymorphs (210 and VK247), found four species reactive: Anopheles vestitipennis (3 pools), Anopheles darlingi (2 pools), Anopheles albimanus (10 pools), and Anopheles gabaldoni (2 pools). The minimum field infection rates (MFIR) for combined Plasmodium species from the general survey were 0.282% for An. vestitipennis, 0.271% for An. darlingi, 0.126% for An. albimanus, and 0.395% for An. gabaldoni. MFIRs for combined Plasmodium species from the longitudinal study in the village of Caledonia were 0.018% for both An. vestitipennis and An. albimanus and 1.66% for An. gabaldoni. Positive CSP pools were collected from the Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, and Toledo political districts. No CSP positive pools were detected from collections in the Belize District. The study provides valuable information on the spatial distribution and species type of Plasmodium positive mosquitoes. This information, in combination with other vector data, suggest that An. vestitipennis and An. darlingi are commonly involved in malaria transmission. Additionally, these species appear to be much more efficient vectors than An. albimanus in Belize.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

DDE in eggs of two crocodile species from Belize.

Organochlorine (OC) residues were recently detected in nonviable Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) eggs from northern Belize. To further the assessment of contaminant exposure in Belizean crocodiles, nonviable Morelet's crocodile eggs (n = 11) from southern Belize and American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) eggs (n = 12) from the coastal zones of Belize were screened for 20 OCs. Results indicated p,p-DDE to be the most prevalent OC (96% occurrence) in eggs examined, with concentrations ranging from 5 to 372 ng/g. These concentrations are similar to those observed in crocodile eggs (10-180 ng/g) from northern Belize. A general trend toward higher DDE concentrations in Morelet's crocodile eggs (mean = 103 ppb) compared with American crocodile eggs (mean = 31 ppb) was observed. However, this trend may be due to site-specific contamination rather than differences in interspecific susceptibility to chemical exposure. Other OCs detected in crocodile eggs included the parent compound, p,p-DDT, and its metabolite, p, p-DDD.

Alligators and Crocodiles↗
PubMed1993

The prevalence of hepatitis A, B and C infection among different ethnic groups in Belize.

Little is known about the prevalence of infection with hepatitis viruses in Belize, Central America. We conducted a serologic survey among members of the Belize Defence Force (BDF), which is composed of the five major ethnic groups in Belize, to estimate prevalence rates of hepatitis A, B, and C among military-aged men and women in Belize. Of approximately 600 men and women in the BDF, 492 (82%) completed a questionnaire and blood collection. Antibody to hepatitis A was found in 94%, with similar rates by age, sex, rank, and ethnicity. Antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) was found in 31%. Rates of anti-HBc varied significantly among the ethnic groups with the lowest rates in Mestizo (5%) and Mayan Indians (9%), and significantly higher rates among Creoles (30%) and Garifuna (56%). Rates increased with increasing age from 28% in those 18-24 years old to 35% in those > or = 35 years old (P = 0.07, by chi-square test for trend). Hepatitis B surface antigen was found in 21 (4%) overall. Antibody to hepatitis C was found in two (0.4%). In this young healthy population, exposure to hepatitis A before the age of 18 is almost universal, while exposure to hepatitis B is related to age and ethnic origin.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Spatial distribution of adult Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles albimanus in relation to riparian habitats in Belize, Central America.

Collections of Anopheles darlingi Root and An. albimanus Wiedemann from central and northern Belize were conducted as landing captures from 6:30 to 8:00 p.m. to define spatial distributions and outdoor:indoor ratios of biting during the early evening. In central Belize, collections were made at 31 houses in riparian zones (> or = 1 km from rivers) and 14 houses in upland zones (>1 km from rivers) during the dry and wet seasons of 1993 and 1994. Females of both species were abundant in houses < or = 1 km from rivers. Females were not present in houses located in upland areas during the dry season, but were present in the wet season. A total of 63 paired collections (representing 130 individual captures) from 42 houses showed An. darlingi females were more endophagic (ratio of 1:0.6) during the early evening than were An. albimanus females (ratio of 1:0.21). Paired landing collections from 22 houses in riparian zones in April-May were analyzed in an index of species abundance (ISA). ISA values rated An. darlingi as the dominant Anopheles mosquito indoors and An. albimanus was dominant outside. Although An. darlingi and An. albimanus were abundant in riparian zones, there was no association in their numerical abundance, suggesting that different environmental factors influenced their abundance. In northern Belize, one house for each of 16 villages was sampled during April and May 1994. Large numbers ofAn. albimanus were captured outdoors in houses located in riparian and marshland areas (means of 217.5 and 247.5/1.5 personhours outdoors, respectively). Numbers of An. albimanus were low at houses located away from rivers and marshes (12.2 per collection). Anopheles darlingi was uncommon at sites in northern Belize. Proportionally fewer An. albimanus females entered houses in the north (outdoor:indoor ratio of 1:0.16) compared to the central region (ratio of 1:0.21), which probably reflects differences in house construction, anti-mosquito behavior (i.e., closing windows and doors at sunset), and insecticide treatments. The ISA gave a quantitative assessment of vector dominance in relation to the parameters of spatial distribution and numerical abundance. The index was also sensitive to the variables of indoor and outdoor biting behaviors.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Growth status of school-age Mayan children in Belize, Central America.

This paper reports the growth status of a sample of Mopan Maya school children living in a rural village in Belize. These children exhibit a growth pattern typical of chronic undernutrition, in that a high percentage are stunted (66%), but virtually none are wasted by WHO criteria. The Belize Maya children are compared to four other Amerindian groups and found to be shorter and lighter than a semi-urban group from Guatemala, but taller and heavier than three rural groups from Guatemala and Mexico. The Belize children exhibit the largest arm circumferences among all five groups. This pattern of growth is discussed in light of current ideas concerning the contribution of genetics vs. environment to childhood growth and population well-being.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Midwifery in Northern Belize.

During several volunteer experiences in the Corozal District in Northern Belize, the authors worked with and interviewed traditional midwives, midwife educators, administrators, and professional midwives, who practice in public health clinics, rural health outposts, and a government hospital. One interview with a traditional midwife from a rural Mayan village, garnered interesting information about her 63-year practice, which is compared with the practice of professional midwives. Issues important to midwifery and health care in Belize are discussed. The interviews and the authors' own experiences reveal changing birthing practices, as well as the continued importance of midwives in the care of childbearing women in Northern Belize.

Belize↗
PubMed2001

Healing practices of the people of Belize.

Few countries in the world offer health care enthusiasts the chance to explore holistic models more than the tiny country of Belize in Central America. Situated in the lush rain forests of the tropics, Belize provides the context for practitioners who are trying to blend treatment modalities as old as the Mayan Empire with the unrelenting influx of intensive care technologies from the West. Herein are the stories of a cadre of healers in Belize who model an integration of the traditional and the professional and how they have accomplished it.

Belize↗
PubMed2003

Veterinary Services in Belize: adapting organisational models to the needs of small economies.

International trade in agricultural goods is governed by the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the 'SPS Agreement') of the World Trade Organization. Small economies, such as the economy of Belize, must have the necessary infrastructure in place to meet their obligations and exercise their rights under the SPS Agreement. In response to the shortcomings of a small economy, the Belize Government has established the Belize Agricultural Health Authority (BAHA) as its organisational model, to meet the challenges of providing Veterinary Services in this new millennium, as well as the demands of the international trade in animals and plants and their products. This model became operational in the year 2000 and has received national and international recognition as an appropriate model for small economies. The success of BAHA is due to strong political support and its dual public and private sector characteristics.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1978

Histoplasmosis in Belize, Central America.

After two small outbreaks of histoplasmosis in Belize, an epidemiologic survey was carried out. Forty percent of 141 persons in two groups tested demonstrated a positive histoplasmin reaction. In one study group there was a significant association between visiting caves and histoplasmin positivity. Histoplasma capsulatum was not isolated in 20 soil specimens collected from outbreak-associated caves, but was isolated from 1 of 26 bats collected from the same caves. The presence of histoplasmosis in Belize, C.A. is documented, and this disease should be considered in differential diagnosis in patients, both residents and visitors in Belize, with compatible clinical presentations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Prevalence of hepatitis B virus among health care workers in Belize, Central America.

A seroprevalence survey of hepatitis B virus (HBV) markers was conducted among health care workers in Belize to help determine the epidemiology of hepatitis B and to determine if screening before immunization might lower vaccine costs. Of the 330 workers tested, 94 (29%) were positive for antibody to HBV core antigen (anti-HBc) and three (1%) had HBV surface antigen. The presence of anti-HBc increased significantly with age from 12% in those 18-24 years old to 52% in those > or = 50 years old. The rate was 17% of 48 men compared with 30% of 282 women (P = 0.05). Rates increased with years of medical service and were higher among nurses (69 of 228; 30%) and nonprofessional staff (15 of 44; 34%) than among physicians (0 of 20). The presence of anti-HBc also differed significantly among ethnic groups: Mestizo, 4%; Creole, 33% and Garifuna, 57%. Rates differed by district ranging from 3% in a northern district (mostly Mestizo) to 67% in a southern district (mostly Garifuna). Parental exposure to hepatitis B through needle stick injuries and blood transfusions was not associated with anti-HBc. Multiple logistic regression analysis confirmed ethnicity, district of residence, and age as the best predictors of anti-HBc in health care workers. Cost analysis suggests that because of regional differences in exposure, testing of health care workers for anti-HBc in the Belize and Stann Creek districts in southern Belize before hepatitis B immunization would result in vaccine program cost savings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Epidemiology of acute hepatitis in the Stann Creek District of Belize, Central America.

Hepatitis is common in the Stann Creek District of southern Belize. To determine the etiologies, incidence, and potential risk factors for acute jaundice, we conducted active surveillance for cases. Cases of jaundice diagnosed by a physician within the previous 6 weeks were enrolled. Evaluation included a questionnaire and laboratory tests for hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E, a blood film for malaria, and a serologic test for syphilis. Etiologies of jaundice among 62 evaluable patients included acute hepatitis A, 6 (9.7%), acute hepatitis B, 49 (79.0%), hepatitis non-A-E, 2 (3.2%), and malaria, 5 (8.1%). There were no cases of acute hepatitis E. One patient each with antibody to hepatitis C and D were detected. The annualized incidence of hepatitis A was 0.26 per 1,000. All cases of hepatitis A were in children 4-16 years of age. The annualized incidence of hepatitis B, 2.17 per 1,000, was highest in adults aged 15-44 years (4.4 per 1,000) and was higher in men (36 cases; 3.09 per 1,000) than women (13 cases; 1.19 per 1,000). Four (31%) of the women with hepatitis B were pregnant. The annualized incidence was significantly higher in Mestizo (6.18 per 1000) and Maya (6.79 per 1,000) than Garifuna (0.38 per 1,000) or Creole (0.36 per 1,000). Persons with hepatitis B were significantly more likely to be born outside of Belize (82%), had been in Belize < 5 years (73%), and lived and worked in rural areas (96%) than was the general population. Of those > or = 14 years of age with hepatitis B, only 36% were married. Few persons admitted to transfusions, tattoos, IV drug use, multiple sexual partners, visiting prostitutes, or sexually transmitted diseases. Only 1 of 49 had a reactive test for syphilis. Six patients were hospitalized (including 3 with acute hepatitis B and one with hepatitis A), and none to our knowledge died. Acute hepatitis B is the most common cause of viral hepatitis in the Stann Creek District, but the modes of transmission remain obscure. Infants, women attending prenatal clinics, and new workers are potential targets for immunization with hepatitis B vaccine.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2002

Role of residual spraying for malaria control in Belize.

We studied the impact of reduced residual spraying in Belize by developing a logistic regression model on relationships between numbers of houses sprayed (mostly with DDT) and numbers of malaria cases. We defined the "minimum effective house spray rate" (MEHSR) as the level of spraying that will prevent increases in malaria rates for a defined population. Under the total coverage approach (all houses sprayed), the MEHSR for Belize was 134.6. The model also showed that the odds for decreasing malaria is 1.086 for each increase of 10 houses sprayed per 1,000 population. In further testing, highly significant and differential changes in malaria rates were documented for paired groups of years with house spray rates that were either above or below the MEHSR. Numbers of malaria cases since 1995 are used to show how stratification methods are used in Belize to spray fewer houses (at levels below the MEHSR of 134.6).

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Patterns of growth and malnutrition among preschoolers in Belize.

An anthropometric survey of 750 preschoolers was conducted 1979 in Belize to assess nutritional status in two districts, one coastal and the other inland. Mothers were interviewed concerning reproductive history, child's health and dietary history, and associated factors. Analysis included the recognition of low arm circumference, weight-for-age, stature-for-age, and weight-for-stature. Survey results indicate that about 25% of the children, birth to 5 years old, show evidence of stunting, while 2.5% show evidence of wasting. Comparisons of rates of malnutrition by ethnic group reveal the Maya and Garifuna (Black Carib) children are significantly more commonly malnourished than others. Applying a discriminant function to groups of children designated as "poor" and "better-than-average" growth classes reveals several factors which may be contributory to the etiology of preschool malnutrition in Belize. the frequency of diarrhea and age at introduction to sold foods, are significantly related to growth retardation among preschoolers. Analysis of 24-hour-diet recalls corroborates the patterning of malnutrition among the ethnic groups.

Age Factors↗