The effects of neonatal exposure to testosterone on the development of behaviour in female marmoset monkeys.
Experimental investigations of sexual differentiation in primates have been mainly confined to the rhesus monkey, a highly polygamous species with marked anatomical and behavioural sexual dimorphism. The marmoset is a monogamous monkey which shows little anatomical or behavioural sexual dimorphism, and both sexes exhibit positive feedback in response to the administration of oestradiol. This monkey has a relatively short gestation period of 144 days and usually gives birth to dizygotic twins. These share a common placental circulation and hence develop as haematopoietic chimaeras. However, a female with a male co-twin is not adversely affected as a result of this and the freemartin condition does not occur. Since the newborn male experiences raised testosterone levels soon after birth it is possible that the 'critical period' for sexual marmosets were implanted with 25 mg of testosterone for 50 days after birth. After removal of the implants their genitalia remained partly masculinized and they initiated more masculine rough-and-tumble play than their controls. After puberty they exhibited a mixture of male and female sexual behaviour when presented with unfamiliar normal males and females during 15-minute behavioural trials. Four of the implanted females have also ovulated. Neonatal administration of testosterone therefore has had an organizing effect on female behaviour. Whether the marmoset is exceptional in this respect, or whether other primates which exhibit a male neonatal testosterone surge, such as man and the rhesus monkey, also undergo some postnatal behavioural differentation, remains to be seen.