The early history of anaesthesia in Canada: the introduction of ether to upper Canada, 1847.
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Anesthesia↗
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Abstracts of papers presented at the 1979 meetings of the Genetics Society of America in conjunction with the Genetics Society of Canada Edmonton, Alberta, Canada August 20-22, 1979.
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Animals↗
[An analysis of the rise of health care costs in institutions in Canada and Quebec].
The author compares increases in institutional care costs in Quebec with the rest of Canada revealing the following: The 14 per cent annual increase reported by federal health minister Marc Lalonde is well above the increase in the Canadian population of 4 per cent. The 12 per cent rise in costs of Quebec health services is far above the increase in the population of 15 per cent. Therefore, population is not a major factor in cost increase. The rate of cost increase in Quebec is below the national rate, 12 per cent against 14 per cent. Cost of institutional care in dollars per capita is appreciably lower in Quebec than in the rest of Canada. The average increase in health care costs in Canada between 1970 and 1973 is actually above the average deseasonized increase rate of the gross national product (GNP). The average cost increase of institutional care remained, however, below the increase of the GNP in Canada. The increase in the number of patients admitted is far above the increase in population, in both Quebec and the other provinces, the difference being more important in Quebec than in the rest of Canada. Utilization has partly been possible through decrease in the average length of stay in both Quebec and the other provinces. The decrease in average length of stay is higher in other Canadian provinces than it is in Quebec. However, it is lower in Quebec for a day. The occupancy rate has consistantly been rising in Quebec while it remained stable in other provinces. The number of patients admitted per 1,000 population has remained much lower in Quebec as compared to the rest of Canda. The difference tends, however, to decrease. The number of institutional care facilities remains higher in other Canadian provinces than in Quebec in proportion to the population The number of visits in emergency units per 1,000 population has doubled in Quebec, as compared to the rest of Canada with half that increase. It would be interesting to establish the trend in institutional care for outpatient departments other than emergency units; complete data about this not as yet availble.
Canada↗
Investing in Canada's nursing workforce: a comprehensive review to inform policy innovations and directions.
BACKGROUND: Health systems worldwide face persistent health workers challenges including nursing shortages, workforce strain, and inequities. In Canada, these challenges have prompted renewed national and provincial reforms to strengthen recruitment, retention, leadership, and sustainability. This paper compares nursing workforce policy directions across Canada, and international jurisdictions to inform policy and planning. METHODS: A cross-country comparative analysis of policies building on a comprehensive national funded review that included an umbrella review of 69 systematic reviews, a comparative policy review of nursing workforce strategies in five jurisdictions, and validation through national horizon-scanning and policy dialogues (n >100). Evidence was analyzed across system, organizational, and individual levels. RESULTS: At the system level, international jurisdictions demonstrate comprehensive, legislated approaches integrating data, governance, and multi-year funding have advanced key nursing strategies. In Canada, the advances show the importance of strategies to have national and provincial/territorial alignment emphasizing leadership, flexibility, and inclusion as key levers. Organizational and individual-level reforms such as mentorship, leadership development, and wellness initiatives are expanding but remain variably evaluated. Experts identified national workforce data strategies and policy integration with embedded evaluation as key enablers to inform scalability and sustainability of implemented strategies. CONCLUSIONS: Canada's nursing workforce reforms are advancing toward coordinated, equity-driven, and evidence-informed strategies. Continued investment in evaluation, leadership, and national integrated data systems along with integrating nursing workforce planning within broader intersectoral planning will consolidate these gains and position Canada as an international leader in sustainable nursing workforce policy.
Canada↗
Antigenic relations of Rickettsia prowazekii and Rickettsia canada, established in the study of sera of patients with Brill's disease.
Sera of patients with Brill's disease and of healthy persons with spotted fever in their past history were examined in the complement fixation reaction (CFR) to determine antigenic relations between R. prowazekii and R. canada. R. canada was found to have common antigenic determinants with R. prowazekii and R. mooseri. However, the antigenic determinants of R. canada differed from those of the mentioned rickettsiae. The titres of complement-fixing antibodies in the sera of patients with Brill's disease with the antigen of R. mooseri were lower than the titres with the homologous antigen within the range of 1-2 twofold dilutions of the serum. However, the oscillations of the titres with the antigen of R. canada in the study of the same sera were expressed in 1-5 twofold dilutions. In serological identification of canada rickettsiosis, antigens of rickettsiae of the spotted fever group should invariably be included in the investigation of the sera.
Antigens↗
PCR-based species identification tools for wireworms (Coleoptera: Elateridae) of economic importance in Canada.
BACKGROUND: Coexistence of pest and non-pest wireworms (Coleoptera: Elateridae) in agricultural fields makes species-level identification critical to determine when pest management measures are required. However, morphological identification of wireworms (larval stage of click beetles) is challenging, as larvae are difficult to distinguish based on morphological features and misidentifications are common. Here, we developed species-specific primers for 15 click beetle species to be used in PCR-based species-level identification for agricultural fields across Canada. RESULTS: Partial sequences of the gene regions cytochrome c oxidase I (COXI), 16S, 12S, 28S, 18S, internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2), cytochrome-b (CYTB), elongation factor 1 (EF1), ATP6/8, NADH dehydrogenase 1 (ND1), NADH dehydrogenase 2 (ND2), NADH dehydrogenase 3 (ND3), NADH dehydrogenase 4 (ND4), NADH dehydrogenase 5 (ND5) and NADH dehydrogenase 6 (ND6) were generated for elaterid species of interest. Of these gene regions, primers were designed on the mitochondrial gene regions COXI, CYTB and ND1 that had sufficient variation to discriminate among species and tested for species specificity using additional pest and non-pest species from the families Elateridae, Carabidae, Scarabidae and Silphidae. Specificity testing confirmed that all primer sets were species-specific. CONCLUSION: The novel primers designed in this study allow for PCR-based species identification of 15 economically important click beetle pest species in Canada. Further testing is needed to validate the assay for use outside of Canada. Accurate species-level identification will benefit pest management professionals by informing management decisions and reducing the use of insurance insecticide applications due to difficulties with identifications of wireworm pest species. © 2026 His Majesty the King in Right of Canada and The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food.
Animals↗
Policy pathways and historical insights: Canada's evolving approach to psychedelic access for end-of-life distress.
Canada's evolving attitudes toward psychedelic interventions in palliative and end-of-life care reflect a departure from historically prohibitionist policies and an emerging recognition of their therapeutic potential for individuals facing end-of-life distress. This shift parallels international regulatory developments in jurisdictions such as the United States, Australia and parts of Europe, where cautious policy liberalization has signaled growing acceptance of psychedelics within clinical contexts. Canada is also a relevant case because of its formative role in the development of modern palliative care, its contemporary frameworks emphasizing holistic approaches to suffering at the end of life, and its experience with medical assistance in dying, all of which have shaped national conversations about suffering, autonomy, and end-of-life care. Additionally, Canada's distinctive historical approach to drug regulation-marked by federal flexibility, mechanisms for compassionate access, and responsiveness to patient advocacy-combined with rising public demand and incremental provincial changes, may uniquely position the country along a transitional pathway toward clinical integration of psychedelics in palliative care. At the same time, Canadian drug policy remains heterogeneous across substances and provinces, underscoring the political contingency of reform. Within this dynamic landscape, Canada's psychedelic drug policy trajectory aligns with broader international trends toward cautious medicalization and regulated access to psychedelic therapies, while also offering an instructive case for how end-of-life frameworks and federal-provincial governance shape policy development.
Humans↗
A comparative study of involutional depressive patients in French Canada and in Hungary.
The data dealing with 200 involutional depressive patients who were treated in Quebec City and in Budapest are presented. A questionnaire prepared for this purpose is produced and evaluated. Half of the Canadian and 80% of the Hungarian patients were personally interviewed by the author. Those patients with organic brain syndromes were not included in the population studied. Besides many similarities between the two groups, there were also symptomatological differences observed, e.g. the agitated type of involutional melancholy occurred twice as often in Canada as in Hungary, the apathetic cases were rarer in Canada, and the illness began earlier among Canadian women. Self-blame in Canada was often linked to religious observation. Two typical syndromes in male and female patients are detailed as special disease patterns. The symptomatology of this disorder has become identical in the last few years in both countries, therefore it is improbable that a similar study in the future could point out the differences described here.
Aged↗
The soluble antigens of Rickettsia prowazeki, R. typhi and R. canada. Investigation of their interrelationship by various serological methods.
The purpose of this research is the isolation of an eventual species-specific fraction from the "soluble antigen" of Rickettsiae. The "soluble antigen" of R. prowazeki (Breinl strain), R. typhi (Wilmington strain) and R. canada were purified at 25% saturation with ammonium sulphate (PSA). Corresponding antisera were produced in rabbits. The serological methods used were the complement fixation, the micro-agglutination, the precipitation method in capillary tubes and the immuno-diffusion method carried out with complete and previously cross-absorbed antisera. Furthermore, the PSA were subjected to immuno-electrophoretic and disc electrophoretic fractionation. The PSA of R. prowazeki was found to contain at least 4 group-specific fractions. A species-specific component could be demonstrated with certainty only with the precipitation method in capillary tubes carried out with previously cross-absorbed antisera. The PSA of R. typhi contains 5 fractions of which 4 are group-specific and one is species-specific. This result was confirmed by all methods. The PSA of R. canada: the maximum of 3 components could be detected with the help of immuno-electrophoretic fractionation. A fourth antigenic determinant was made apparent by the presence of corresponding antibodies in the anti-R. canada PSA only.
Antigens, Bacterial↗
A comparative study of involutional depressive patients in French Canada and in Hungary.
The data dealing with 200 involutional depressive patients who were treated in Quebec City and in Budapest are presented. A questionnnaire prepared for this purpose is produced and evaluated. Half of the Canadian and 80% of the Hungarian patients were personally interviewed by the author. Those patients with organic brain syndromes were not included in the population studied. Besides many similarities between the two groups, there were also symptomatological differences observed, e.g. the agitated type of involutional melancholy occurred twice as often in Canada as in Hungary, the apathetic cases were rarer in Canada, and the illness began earlier among Canadian women. Self-blame in Canada was often linked to religious observation. Two typical syndromes in male and female patients are detailed as special disease patterns. The symptomatology of this disorder has become identical in the last few years in both countries, therefore it is improbable that a similar study in the future could point out the differences described here.
Age Factors↗
[Experimental infection of domestic animals with R. prowazeki and R. canada].
The authors infected lambs with R. prowazeki and R. canada to ascertain their possible role in the natural infection of the animals. The lambs were infected subcutaneously with increasing doses; rickettsiemia was recorded with the aid of tests on guinea pigs and Ixodidae and Argasidae ticks fed on the lambs. Dynamics of antibody formation was ascertained in the infected animals in the agglutination reaction and in the complement fixation test. The antigenic affinity of R. canada and rickettsia of the typhoid group and the presence of common antigenic determinants with the Proteus OX19 was confirmed. The absence of any clinical manifestations, the character of antibody formation, impossibility of inducing the generalized infection and of the isolation of the causative agent from the blood pointed to the low susceptibility of lambs to R. prowazeki and R. canada; thus a possibility of circulation of the causative agents of typhius among the domestic animals scarcely probable.
Agglutination Tests↗
Universal health insurance in Canada: history, problems, trends.
This paper describes the universal health insurance program in Canada and identifies the historical events and social values leading to its adoption. Universal hospital insurance was adopted in 1958, ten years before medical insurance, as a result hospital-based patterns of practice were solidified. Through cost sharing, the federal government influenced the provinces to enact relatively uniform universal plans. From 1951 to 1971 health care expenditures rose rapidly to 7.3% of the gross national product (GNP), but have since decreased and stabilized at about 6.9%. In contrast, health care in the United States represents 8.6% of GNP. Hospital use also increased rapidly in Canada to 1970 but appears to have stabilized and decreased slightly in this decade. Physician incomes rose rapidly before 1971, but since then the increases have slowed and relative incomes of physicians have fallen. Althouth the percent of GNP spent for health care has leveled, there are still substantial annual increases in expenditures that are paid for by government. Two federal initiatives, Bill C-37 and the Lalonde Report, have their roots in cost containment; Bill C-37 transfers greater taxing authority from the federal government to the provinces. To meet the goal of containing costs, provincial governments are moving in the direction of regionalization, decentralization, and greater coordination. In the short term, the provinces have limited hospital budgetary increases to percentages less than the rate of inflation. Cost constraints may be long overdue. Imposing fiscal limits encourages rational planning. It does not appear that the health of Canadians will be adversely affected or essential benefits curtailed by present budgetary restrictions or reorganization.
Adult↗
Convenience and the occurrence of births: induction of labor in the United States and Canada.
This paper, using data for the United States and Canada on number of births by day of the week, presents indirect evidence for the widespread incidence of the practice of elective induction. For both the United States and Canada, it is found that substantially fewer births occur on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays than on weekdays. Controlling for such factors as prenatal care, race, education, legitimacy, birth weight, and time trend strongly suggests that the induction of labor is responsible for the patterns found. The paper concludes by discussing the framework within which the practice of elective induction of labor should be evaluated and justified.
Appointments and Schedules↗
Education and certification of biomedical engineers in Canada.
The education of biomedical engineers in Canada is discussed, with reference to the Canadian health care system and related industry. Information on specific educational programmes, with enrollment data, is presented. The paper concludes with brief comments on the certification of clinical engineers in Canada.
Biomedical Engineering↗
Adenovirus type 19 keratoconjunctivitis in Canada.
We describe an outbreak of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis occurring in Montreal during the winter of 1974. Adenovirus type 19 was the only virus isolated. We confirm the presence of type 19 adenovirus in Canada; it produces severe keratoconjunctivitis. The incubation period, method of spread and clinical findings resemble those seen in outbreaks of type 8 EKC. The prevalence of adenovirus type 19 in the population of Canada is unknown. Although some object to the use of the term EKC for infection caused by adenoviruses other than type 8, we believe that EKC should be regarded as an entity requiring virus isolation and antibody determination to identify the adenovirus type responsible for it.
Adenoviridae↗
The adventures of Dr. Duncan McNab McEachran in western Canada.
Duncan McNab McEachran's early history and involvement in the formation of the Montreal Veterinary College as well as in livestock inspection were reviewed. His contribution to the beginning of the ranching industry in western Canada was explored in detail. In 1881, McEachran helped to establish the Cochrane Ranche, which was the first great ranch to be started in southern Alberta. He was employed as the ranch's resident general manager until 1883, in which year the Waldrond Ranch was established. McEachran was this ranch's president and general manager until approximately 1909. During this time, he came under considerable criticism from both The MacLeod Gazette and The Calgary Herald. As Dr. McEachran maintained his obligations to the ranches while he was directing the veterinary college in Montreal as well as chief inspector of livestock for Canada, it was concluded that this feat alone would rank him as a remarkable historical figure.
Canada↗
Parasitic disease in humans: the extent in Canada.
Much is being said, often dramatically, about the potential hazards of parasitic diseases in Canada, but little or no attempt has been made to determine the true extent of the problem. Indigenous parasite pathogens are recognized in resident Canadians, and pathogens are acquired by travellers abroad or reported from immigrants. The role of each of these categories is important in the characterization of the problem of parasitic diseases in Canada. From data provided by provincial laboratories and hospitals it is estimated that 1 person in 1000 will spend 1 day per year in hospital because of intestinal parasites, and 1 in 100 each year will have a diagnosis of intestinal parasitic infection made from examination of a stool sample.
Amebiasis↗
Disease-modifying therapy uptake in a pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis population, British Columbia, Canada.
BACKGROUND: The treatment of pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis (POMS) is evolving as disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) undergo pediatric clinical trials. However, most DMTs remain off-label in children resulting in barriers to access and variability in treatment patterns across jurisdictions. The aim of this study was to describe trends in DMT uptake in POMS in British Columbia, Canada. METHODS: We utilized linked clinical and administrative datasets to identify MS with onset <18 years-of-age and assess DMT uptake from dispensed prescriptions between January 1, 1996 and March 1, 2020 in British Columbia, Canada. RESULTS: Of 173 POMS cases (median follow-up = 11.5 years), 32 (18%) filled a DMT prescription <18 years-of-age; 76 (44%) did so at any age. Moderate-efficacy therapies (beta-interferons/glatiramer acetate/teriflunomide/dimethyl fumarate) were the initial DMT in 60 cases (79%) overall, however by the end of follow-up a high-efficacy therapy was the most recent DMT dispensed for 52/76 cases (68%). After 2016, anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies became the most common DMT class dispensed. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate-efficacy therapies were the more common initial DMT dispensed for individuals with POMS, but more than two-thirds eventually received a high-efficacy therapy. Only a minority of POMS cases were first dispensed a DMT under age 18 years.
Disease modifying therapies↗