SEARCH · PubMed Health

Results for “DEER”

Explore indexed PubMed citations for clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health research. Read source abstracts and follow each citation to its original PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMedDate not supplied

Rumen ciliates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), axis deer (Axis axis), sika deer (Cervus nippon) and fallow deer (Dama dama) from Texas.

Samples of rumen contents from 33 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), 31 axis deer (Axis axis), 26 sika deer (Cervus nippon), and 25 fallow deer (Dama dama) were collected from four study areas in central Texas. The geometric mean concentration of total protozoa was 50.2 x 10(4) per ml, with no differences between species (P > 0.36). White-tailed deer had a higher percentage of Entodinium and lower percentage of Diplodiniinae (P < 0.01) than the other deer species, which were not different from each other. Occurrence of Epidinium, Isotricha, and Dasytricha was sporadic and did not differ among deer species. Numerous new host records of protozoan species were observed: white-tailed deer--four; axis deer--five; sika deer--five; fallow deer--four. This brings the total number of protozoan species identified in each deer species to: white-tailed--eight; axis--12; sika--15; fallow--16. For all species combined, protozoan concentration were 7.5 to 11-fold higher (P < 0.01) from Area 4, which differed from the other three areas by having a stream that allowed deer to have free access to water. Criteria used for identification of medium-size Eudiplodinium species were evaluated.

Animals↗

PubMed2007

Mitochondrial DNA distinction of northeastern China roe deer, Siberian roe deer, and European roe deer, to clarify the taxonomic status of northeastern China roe deer.

Partial sequences of the mitochondrial control region of northeastern China roe deer were analyzed to determine the degree of genetic diversity. Fourteen haplotypes were observed. The haplotype diversity was high (h = 0.872), nucleotide diversity was medium (p ( i ) = 0.0108), and the average Tamura-Nei nucleotide distance among them was 1.9%, indicating that genetic diversity of roe deer from northeastern China was relatively high and that the effective population size was large historically. To clarify the northeastern China roe deer's taxonomic status, these 14 haplotypes were compared with 31 haplotypes published in Genbank from Europe, Siberia, and Korea. The average genetic distance between haplogroups of northeastern China and European roe deer (5.8%) was more than twice that between northeastern China and Siberian roe deer (2.7%), indicating sufficient variation to consider roe deer of northeastern China and Siberia as a single species (Capreolus pygargus), distinct from European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). This is the first presentation of mtDNA data for roe deer in northeastern China, which will be helpful in investigations of genetic diversity and clarifications of the taxonomic status of roe deer in the whole of China.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Superovulation in red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus), and fertilization rates following artificial insemination with Père David's deer semen.

Two comparative studies were undertaken using adult, female red and Père David's deer to examine the ovulatory response of these animals to a superovulation regimen and fertilization rates following inter- and intraspecific laparoscopic insemination. In Expt 1 six Père David's deer and 12 red deer hinds were treated during the breeding season with an intravaginal progesterone-impregnated controlled internal drug release device (CIDR) for 14 days, with 200 iu pregnant mares' serum gonadotrophin (PMSG) administered 72 h before the device was withdrawn and eight injections of ovine FSH given at 12 h intervals starting at the time of PMSG administration. Oestrous behaviour began one day after CIDR device withdrawal (Père David's deer: 24.00 +/- 2.32 h; red deer: 24.60 +/- 2.23 h). The duration of oestrus was greater in Père David's deer than in red deer (17.50 +/- 1.43 h and 8.25 +/- 3.25 h, respectively, P < 0.001). The peak LH surge of Père David's deer was 68.65 +/- 4.74 ng ml-1 occurring 29.00 +/- 2.41 h after removal of the CIDR devices. In comparison, the peak LH surge in red deer was 17.09 +/- 3.64 ng ml-1 (P < 0.001), occurring 24.00 +/- 0.00 h after CIDR device withdrawal. Pre-surge concentrations of LH were also greater (P < 0.001) in Père David's deer (1.37 +/- 0.11 ng ml-1) than in red deer hinds (0.41 +/- 0.02 ng ml-1).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Morphological variability of forestomach mucosal membrane in red deer, fallow deer, roe deer and mouflon.

The number and size of ruminal papillae, reticular cells and omasal laminae in free-living game deer (red deer, fallow deer, roe deer and mouflon) were examined. Mucosal membrane (MM) specimens were collected from the forestomachs of hunted deer. These parameters were assessed as related to the grazing environment, sex and age of animals. The number and size of ruminal papillae corresponded the best to the feeding specialization of the respective deer species and affecting factors. In two areas under study, the number and size of the ruminal papillae were significantly higher during the growing season than during the winter period (P<0.05) in all four species. Only the papillae on the dorsal wall of the rumen did not respond to seasonal changes (P>0.05). Differences in the number and size of papillae between different deer and mouflon were not significant when compared to sex, or place of origin (P>0.05). The size of the reticular cells and number and size of omasal laminae differed between individual species, but the data were not statistically significant. The parameters assessed in this study corresponded to the dietary choices of each species. The most significant differences were found between roe deer and mouflon. The smallest differences were found between red deer and fallow deer where the ruminal papillae responded to changes in the quality of the food during the year.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

Analysis of microsatellite polymorphism in red deer, roe deer, and fallow deer -- possible employment in forensic applications.

DNA microsatellites play a major role in population genetics, linkage mapping, and parentage studies of mammals. In addition, they may be used for forensic purposes, if an individual identification of a specific animal is necessary. Therefore, we tested a variety of microsatellite polymorphism derived from reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) by PCR and sequencing analysis for use in red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama). Twelve of these microsatellites were selected for further analysis. In all these microsatellite polymorphism short tandem repeats could be detected for one or all three species as shown by sequencing analysis. In red deer, more than two alleles were found in eight microsatellites, in roe deer more than two alleles could be demonstrated in seven microsatellites, whereas in fallow deer more than two alleles were found in only two microsatellite polymorphism. A comparison of sequences of PCR products from the three deer species with the sequences of reindeer revealed several differences between the four species. In six microsatellites -- selected because or their reliability in PCR and because of their polymorphic character -- we established a sequenced allelic ladder and give population data of all three species from 82 deer of the Northeast region of Germany (Vorpommern). Our results show the possibility to use microsatellite polymorphism in the identification of deer in forensic applications like poaching.

Alleles↗

PubMed1995

A comparative study of the histopathologic features of bovine tuberculosis in cattle, fallow deer (Dama dama), sika deer (Cervus nippon), and red deer and elk (Cervus elaphus).

Sections of tuberculous lesions from 23 elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) and red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus), 12 fallow deer (Dama dama), 10 sika deer (Cervus nippon), and 30 cattle were examined and compared. Lesions were scored for caseous necrosis, mineralization, neutrophils, macrophages, giant cells, and acid-fast bacilli. Some differences in lesion morphology between the species were noted. Elk/red deer lesions had marked variation and often differed from bovine lesions in several characteristics; elk/red deer lesions usually had scattered peripheral mineralization rather than central mineralization and contained more neutrophils and fewer giant cells than did bovine lesions. Fallow deer lesions contained more giant cells but were otherwise indistinguishable from elk lesions. Sika deer lesions had more giant cells and fewer neutrophils than did lesions from cattle or other cervid species. Sika deer giant cells were larger and contained more nuclei than did giant cells in the other species.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

PCR-RFLP authentication of meats from red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), cattle (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries), and goat (Capra hircus).

PCR-RFLP analysis has been applied to the identification of meats from red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), cattle (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries), and goat (Capra hircus). PCR amplification was carried out using a set of primers flanking a conserved region of approximately 712 base pairs from the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene. Restriction site analysis based on sequence data from this DNA fragment permitted the selection of MseI, MboII, BslI, and ApoI endonucleases for species identification. The restriction profiles obtained when amplicons were digested with the chosen enzymes allowed the unequivocal identification of all domestic and game meat species analyzed in the present work.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

[Thiocyanate blood levels in roe deer, red deer, fallow deer and wild boar].

The following serum levels of thiocyanate (SCN-) were found in game: roe 6.6 +/- 4 mg/l, red deer 5.5 +/- 3.2 mg/l, fallow-deer 5.1 +/- 2.8 mg/l, and wild boar 4.8 +/- 4.5 mg/l (variation 0.6-32.6 mg SCN-/l). These levels are distinctly higher than in domestic animals under stall-feeding with exception of mast calves which were fed milk-substitutes. The SCN- serum level of calves, sheep and horses reach at pasturing nearly the level of game. The higher SCN- serum level of cloven-hoof game resp. by pasturing of domestic animals is caused by higher alimentary SCN- intake.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Experimental deer-to-deer transmission of Mycobacterium bovis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether Mycobacterium bovis can be transmitted from experimentally infected deer to uninfected in-contact deer. ANIMALS: Twenty-three 6-month-old white-tailed deer. PROCEDURE: On day 0, M bovis (2 X 10(8) colony-forming units) was administered by intratonsillar instillation to 8 deer; 3 control deer received saline (0.9% NaCl) solution. Eight in-contact deer were comingled with inoculated deer from day 21. On day 120, inoculated deer were euthanatized and necropsied. On day 180, 4 in-contact deer were euthanatized, and 4 new in-contact deer were introduced. On day 360, all in-contact deer were euthanatized. Rectal, oral, and nasal swab specimens and samples of hay, pelleted feed, water, and feces were collected for bacteriologic culture. Tissue specimens were also collected at necropsy for bacteriologic culture and histologic analysis. RESULTS: On day 90, inoculated and in-contact deer developed delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions to purified protein derivative of M bovis. Similarly, new in-contact deer developed DTH reactions by 100 days of contact with original in-contact deer. Tuberculous lesions in in-contact deer were most commonly detected in lungs and tracheobronchial and medial retropharyngeal lymph nodes. Mycobacterium bovis was isolated from nasal secretions and saliva from inoculated and in-contact deer, urine and feces from in-contact deer, and hay and pelleted feed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Mycobacterium bovis is efficiently transmitted from experimentally infected deer to uninfected in-contact deer through nasal secretions, saliva, or contaminated feed. Wildlife management practices that result in unnatural gatherings of deer may enhance both direct and indirect transmission of M bovis.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed2004

Establishment of adult Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, patent infections, and acquired immunity after experimental infection of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus).

Experimental Parelaphostrongylus tenuis infections were established in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and an atypical host, red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus). Groups of deer were fed 10, 25, or 100 third-stage larvae (L3) of P. tenuis and received a single equivalent challenge exposure at varying intervals. Infections were monitored up to 6 yr in white-tailed deer and up to 2.8 yr in red deer. The prepatent period in white-tailed deer varied from 91 to 1,072 days (381 +/- 374) and in red deer from 105 to 358 days (167 +/- 77). Adult worms lived for up to 6 yr in white-tailed deer. Although most had patent infections until necropsy, latent periods were observed regardless of season. Adult worms lived for up to 2.8 yr in red deer, and patent infections persisted for 20-363 days (152 +/- 106). Patent infections were correlated with the presence of adult worms in blood vessels and sinuses of both deer species. Worms were restricted to the subdural space in all deer with latent and occult infections. Adult worm recovery in white-tailed deer fed 10 or 25 L3 corresponded to the mean intensities reported in natural infections of white-tailed deer Recovery from deer fed 100 L3 was not typical of natural infection intensities. Adult P. tenuis established in all groups of red deer, but neurologic disease was restricted to animals fed 100 L3. Acute neurologic disease was associated with subdural hemorrhage and occurred at 11 mo postinfection in 2 red deer. The absence of postchallenge patent periods and the persistence of occult infections indicated that challenge exposures did not establish. These data indicate that acquired immunity to P. tenuis was established by 6 mo postinfection in both white-tailed and red deer. Latent periods in white-tailed deer and latent infections in red deer reinforce the need for a reliable diagnostic assay.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Phylogeny of wapiti, red deer, sika deer, and other North American cervids as determined from mitochondrial DNA.

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) are divided into three subspecific groups; the first group includes seven subspecies from Europe and northern Africa, the second group includes seven subspecies from central Asia, and the third group includes nine subspecies from eastern Asia, Siberia, and North America. Recognition of the North American wapiti as a species has been denied on the basis of morphological similarity with red deer and the circumpolar distribution of C. elaphus. Sika deer (C. nippon), which are distributed in much of the same range, also share phenotypic and genotypic similarities with the red deer. A comparison of sequences from the control region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from North American and Siberian wapiti, European red deer, and Asian sika deer was used to construct a phylogenetic relationship among these cervids and other cervids found within North America, including white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), black-tailed deer (O. hemionus columbianus), moose (Alces alces), and caribou (Rangifer tarandus). The mtDNA sequence divergence between wapiti and red deer was 5.60%, between wapiti and sika deer 5.19%, and between sika deer and red deer 5.02%, suggesting that the subspecies status of North American wapiti needs to be reviewed. The mtDNA sequence divergence between white-tailed deer and black-tailed deer was 7.82% and is consistant with earlier mtDNA studies in Odocoileus.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Parasites, diseases, and health status of sympatric populations of fallow deer and white-tailed deer in Kentucky.

In August 1983, a study on parasites, diseases, and health status was conducted on sympatric populations of fallow deer (Dama dama) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from Land Between The Lakes, Lyon and Trigg counties, Kentucky. Five adult deer of each species were studied. White-tailed deer had antibodies to epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) virus and Leptospira interogans serovariety icterohemorrhagiae, and fallow deer had antibodies to bluetongue and EHD viruses. Serologic tests for bovine virus diarrhea virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, parainfluenza3 virus, and Brucella spp. were negative. One white-tailed deer had an infectious cutaneous fibroma, and one fallow deer had pulmonary mucormycosis. White-tailed deer harbored 16 species of parasites, all of which are considered typical of the parasite fauna of this host in the southeastern United States. Fallow deer harbored nine species of parasites, including eight species known to occur in white-tailed deer on the area and one species (Spiculopteragia assymmetrica) that is not. All fallow deer had inflammatory lesions in the spinal cord and/or brain that were attributed to prior infection with meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), indicating that P. tenuis infections are not always fatal for this species. The apparent high rate of exposure of Land Between The Lakes fallow deer to P. tenuis without a resultant high rate of clinical cerebrospinal parelaphostrongylosis is hypothesized to be due to a low prevalence and intensity of P. tenuis, partial innate resistance of fallow deer, and acquired immunity.

Animals↗

PubMed1987

Parasites, diseases and health status of sympatric populations of sambar deer and white-tailed deer in Florida.

From December 1983 to December 1984 a study on parasites, diseases and health status was conducted on sympatric populations of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from St. Vincent Island, Franklin County, Florida. Ten sambar and six white-tailed deer were examined. White-tailed deer had antibodies to epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus and bluetongue virus. Serologic tests for antibodies to the etiologic agents of bovine virus diarrhea, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, vesicular stomatitis, parainfluenza 3, brucellosis, and leptospirosis were negative in both species of deer. White-tailed deer harbored 19 species of parasites; all were typical of the parasite fauna of this species in coastal regions of the southeastern United States. Sambar deer harbored 13 species of parasites, which apparently were derived largely from white-tailed deer. The only exception was Dermacentor variabilis which occurs frequently on wild swine on the island. The general health status of sambar deer appeared to be better than that of white-tailed deer. This was hypothesized to result from the sambar deer's utilization of food resources unavailable or unacceptable to white-tailed deer and to the absence and/or lower frequency of certain pathogens in sambar deer.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Allozyme and mitochondrial DNA analysis of a hybrid zone between white-tailed deer and mule deer (Odocoileus) in west Texas.

Thirty allozyme loci and 35 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction sites were examined in 24 white-tailed deer and 46 mule deer from a hybrid zone in West Texas. A common mtDNA genotype is shared by all of the mule deer with 67% of the white-tailed deer. At the albumin locus, 13% of the white-tailed deer and 24% of the mule deer are heterozygous, sharing alleles that are otherwise species-specific in allopatric populations; 7% of the mule deer are homozygous for the allele that is characteristic of allopatric white-tailed deer. Gene flow appears to have been bidirectional, with greater genetic introgression into mule deer. The mtDNA data suggest that matings between white-tailed and mule deer have occurred in the past. Despite evidence of genetic introgression, analysis of multilocus genotypes indicates that none of the deer examined is an F1 hybrid. Production of such hybrids appears to be generally uncommon in North American deer; management plans that assume otherwise should be reconsidered.

Alleles↗

PubMed2002

Comparison of histological lesions and immunohistochemical staining of proteinase-resistant prion protein in a naturally occurring spongiform encephalopathy of free-ranging mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) with those of chronic wasting disease of captive mule deer.

In this investigation, the nature and distribution of histologic lesions and immunohistochemical staining (IHC) of a proteinase-resistant prion protein were compared in free-ranging mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) dying of a naturally occurring spongiform encephalopathy (SE) and captive mule deer dying of chronic wasting disease (CWD). Sixteen free-ranging deer with SE, 12 free-ranging deer without SE, and 10 captive deer with CWD were examined at necropsy. Tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and duplicate sections were stained with a monoclonal antibody (F89/160.1.5). Histological lesions in the free-ranging deer with SE and captive deer with CWD were found throughout the brain and spinal cord but were especially prominent in the myelencephalon, diencephalon, and rhinencephalon. The lesions were characterized by spongiform degeneration of gray matter neuropil, intracytoplasmic vacuolation and degeneration of neurons, and astrocytosis. IHC was found throughout the brain and retina of deer with SE and CWD. Positive IHC was found in lymphoid tissue of deer with SE and CWD. Histologic lesions and IHC were not found in multiple sections of integument, digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, endocrine, musculoskeletal, and urogenital systems of deer with SE or CWD. Comparison of histologic lesions and IHC in tissues of free-ranging deer with those of captive deer provides strong evidence that these two diseases are indistinguishable morphologically.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Phylogenetic relationships among european red deer, wapiti, and sika deer inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences.

We determined the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences (1140 bp) of one subspecies of the European red deer (Cervus elaphus in Europe), three subspecies of the wapiti (C. elaphus in Asia and North America), and six subspecies of the sika deer (C. nippon in Japan). Our phylogenetic analysis revealed the monophyly of the European red deer, that of the wapiti, and that of the sika deer. The wapiti, however, was shown to be more closely related to the sika deer than to the European red deer. This is in conflict with traditional morphological results, which suggest a close sister group relationship between the wapiti and the European red deer. The divergence time between the European red deer and the wapiti plus the sika deer was estimated to be approximately 0.80 Ma, and that between the wapiti and the sika deer was estimated to be 0.57 Ma. The sika deer was subdivided into two subspecies groups, and the wapiti was also found to consist of an Asian group and a North American group.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Influence of level of nutrition during late pregnancy on reproductive productivity of red deer (2) Adult hinds gestating wapitixred deer crossbred calves.

The present study aimed to relate feed intake of red deer hinds in the later stages of gestating wapitixred deer crossbred foetuses on dam body condition, gestation length, birth weight and calf growth. Multiparous hinds (N=18) conceiving at known dates to either wapiti (n=12) or red deer (n=6) sires were housed in individual pens from days 150-220 of pregnancy, during which time they were offered either ad libitum access to pelletised rations (n=6 crossbred-bearing hinds [HH] and n=6 red deer-bearing hinds [RH]) or a restricted offer (n=6 crossbred-bearing hinds [HL]) set at 70% of the average ad libitum intake of HH hind in the previous week. Hinds were returned to pasture at day 220 and calving was closely monitored. Liveweights, body condition score (BCS), and lactation score (LS) of hinds were recorded weekly from day 130 of pregnancy until calves were weaned at 12 weeks of age. Calves were tagged and weighed at birth, and subsequently weighed at 7 and 12 weeks of age. HH and RH hinds exhibited similar patterns and levels of MEI/kg0.75, which peaked at 7.8 MJME/kg0.75 at day 220. HL hinds peaked at approximately 5 MJME/kg0.75 and showed significantly lower rates of liveweight gain during pregnancy. Interestingly, both crossbred-bearing groups initiated mammary development in advance of the RH hinds. While there were significant effects of foetal genotype on mean gestation length (239 days versus 234 days for crossbred versus red deer) and mean birth weight (14.5 kg versus 10 kg), the nutritional contrast for gestation length of crossbred-bearing hinds (i.e. HH versus HL) was not significant but approached significance for birth weight (14.5 kg versus 11.9 kg; P=0.06). Regression analysis revealed weak relationships between changes in hind liveweight and gestation length (P>0.05) but a significant relationship with birth weight (P<0.05). However, change in hind BCS was significantly related to both gestation length and birth weight. Crossbred calves reared by HH hinds were 30% heavier at 7 and 12 weeks of age than the red deer calves. However, those reared by HL hinds were significantly lighter than their genotype contemporaries and only marginally heavier than the red deer calves. These results generally contrast with the previous studies on red deer hinds gestating red deer foetuses [Asher, G.W., Mulley, R.C., O'Neill, K.T., Scott, I.C., Jopson, N.B., Littlejohn, R. 2004. Influence of level of nutrition during late pregnancy on reproductive productivity of red deer, (1) Adult and primiparous hinds gestating red deer calves. Anim. Reprod. Sci., in press] and indicate that the genetically determined higher growth requirements of crossbred foetuses may override any mechanism of compensatory control of gestation length at the expense of calf birth weight. Furthermore, there were marked carryover effects of late gestational feeding on crossbred calf growth and their dam's BCS that highlight the high nutritional demands of lactation.

Aging↗

PubMed2002

Preclinical diagnosis of chronic wasting disease in captive mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) using tonsillar biopsy.

The usefulness of tonsillar biopsy on live deer for preclinical diagnosis of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy chronic wasting disease (CWD) was evaluated. Disease was tracked in a CWD-endemic herd using serial tonsillar biopsies collected at 6 to 9 month intervals from 34 captive mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and five white-tailed deer (O. virginianus). Tonsillar biopsies were examined for accumulation of PrP(CWD), the protein marker for infection, using immunohistochemical (IHC) staining. 26/34 (76%) mule deer and 4/5 (80%) white-tailed deer had PrP(CWD) accumulation in tonsillar biopsies; CWD was subsequently confirmed by post-mortem examination in all 30 of these tonsillar-positive deer. Six mule deer with IHC-negative tonsillar biopsies had positive brain and tonsillar IHC staining upon death 12 to 40 months following the last biopsy. PrP(CWD) accumulation in tonsillar biopsy was observed 2 to 20 months before CWD-related death and up to 14 months before onset of clinical signs of CWD. Tonsillar biopsies from 3-month-old mule deer (n=6) were IHC negative, but PrP(CWD) accumulation was detected in tonsillar biopsies from 7/10 mule deer by 19 months of age. Tonsillar biopsy evaluated with IHC staining is a useful technique for the preclinical diagnosis of CWD in live mule deer and white-tailed deer when intensive management approaches are possible.

Animals↗