Self-deception, other-deception, and self-reported psychopathology.
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Deception↗
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Electrodermal differentiation of deception: perceived accuracy and perceived memorial content manipulations.
The demonstration of deception as a psychophysiological phenomenon requires a comparison of physiological responses to two conditions (experimental and control) which differ only with respect to deception. Such electrodermal (skin conductance response) differentiation was recently reported in the Differentiation of Deception paradigm, which controls for two potentially important sources of confounding in polygraph (often referred to as the Detection of Deception): differential question significance and differential frequency of question occurrence. The present study manipulated (between 32 subjects in a 2 x 2 design) two two-level, subjective factors in the paradigm: Perceived Accuracy of polygraphy (written and oral instructions characterising accuracy as high vs low) and Perceived Memorial Content (20 more complex, less personal, and less meaningful questions vs 6 less complex, more personal, and more meaningful questions). Significant differentiation of deception was again obtained, as was evidence for the effectiveness of the manipulations. However, the deception phenomenon was not clearly affected by either of the two subjective factors. In addition, one post-hoc test showed significantly increased differentiation under the low Perceived Accuracy condition, which is contrary to the widespread belief of polygraphers that high perceived accuracy is not only important but even essential for the detection of deception. However, the applied, polygraphic aim of detecting guilt in individuals is quite different from the scientific, psychophysiological aim of differentiating deception as a psychological process, and the phenomena involved probably have different causes.
Deception↗
Electrodermal differentiation of deception: potentially confounding and influencing factors.
The demonstration of deception as a psychological process requires a comparison of physiological responding to questions answered honestly or deceptively, under conditions which differ only with respect to deception. Such electrodermal (skin conductance response (SCR) differentiation was recently reported in the Differentiation-of-Deception Paradigm. The present study had two empirical goals: (a) to assess the possible confounding role of retrieval-difficulty and novelty in producing the differentiation effect; (b) to ascertain any influencing effects of a memorial ('cumulative' mental load) and two motivational (Monetary-Incentive and Ego-Involvement) factors on the electrodermal differentiation phenomenon and on overall responding. In addition to the basic Deceptive vs. Honest manipulation of the Differentiation-of-Deception Paradigm, the present study varied, within 60 subjects, Question Type (easily retrieved Autobiographical vs. more difficult-to-retrieve Biographical). The two two-level motivational factors were varied between subjects. Finally, to assess the confounding issue, voice latency (VL), known to be sensitive to retrieval-difficulty, was measured in addition to SCR. SCRs to deceptive answers exceeded those to the honestly-answered questions, demonstrating the differentiation phenomenon. Results showed that although VL and SCR was significantly greater to Biographical than to Autobiographical questions, the differentiation effect emerged only in the SCR and not in VL, which suggests that memorial difficulty does not confound the electrodermal differentiation effect.
Adolescent↗
Deception. ACOG Committee opinion: Committee on Ethics number 87--November 1990.
Deception is the deliberate misrepresentation of facts through words or actions in order to make a person believe that which is not true. The forms deception can take include explicit lying, deception by implication, and deception by omission of information that patients need to make decisions in their own regard. Deception intended to advantage the physician economically or otherwise at the expense of the patient is unethical.
Conflict of Interest↗
Volition, deception, and the evolution of justice.
Criminal justice is inextricably associated with the attributive concept of volition. Although the voluntary-involuntary distinction is subjectively vivid, causal research shows its poles to be inseparable, i.e., the dichotomy is deceptive. Why a bulwark of civilization should be founded on paradox, may be clarified by examining the role of self-deception in man's evolutionary heritage. Natural selection for an optimal degree of self-deception probably occurred, both to facilitate deception of others and to foster human cooperation. This contributed to the evolution of psychiatric disorders, the voluntary-involuntary continuum, and large scale social systems. Society and its members reach an equilibrium within the truth-deception continuum, manifest in individuals by conscious versus unconscious and voluntary versus involuntary, and in society by tension between what actually occurs (realism) and its organizing ideals (idealism). Three legal models of criminal justice are understood in this context: The (1) utilitarian, most realistic, is essential to social survival but vulnerable to abuse; (2) rehabilitative, at an opposite idealistic pole, better supports the image of social beneficence that helps to bind society's members; (3) retributive, most heavily grounded in volition, puts greater emphasis on individual autonomy, and reciprocally modulates the other models. All are legitimized by evolutionary traditions that antedate homo sapiens, and none is sufficient in itself. Elements of all three models necessarily coexist within any existing society, their relative strength varying with its collective values, prosperity, and perceived safety.
Criminal Law↗
Out of sight or out of mind? Another look at deception in autism.
The penny-hiding game is a deception game that occurs naturally in parent-child and child-child interaction. It involves minimal linguistic demands, and is lots of fun. Oswald and Ollendick (1989) employed it with subjects with autism and reported an impaired capacity for deception. They also found that this correlated with performance on both a false belief ("theory of mind") test as well as various measures of social behaviour. The experiment reported here set out to replicate Oswald and Ollendick's important results, and then extend them by using a new technique for error analysis. We succeeded in replicating the autism-specific deception impairment as well as the finding that deception capacity correlates highly with performance on a false belief test. In addition, the new analytic technique discriminated the group with autism from controls more clearly than the traditional index of deception. Specifically, subjects with autism, whilst fully capable of enjoying the game as a game of object occlusion (keeping things out of sight), failed to perceive the game as a game of information occlusion (keeping things out of mind), unlike normal children or subjects with a mental handicap of an equivalent or lower mental age. The dissociation in autism between occluding objects vs occluding information is discussed in relation to other research showing that subjects with autism are impaired in understanding the principle that "seeing leads to knowing".
Adolescent↗
Costs of deception: cheaters are punished in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta).
From a functional perspective, deception can evolve in animal populations but should be constrained by the costs associated with detection. It then follows that withholding information should be more prevalent as a form of deception than active falsification of information because of the relative difficulties associated with detecting cheaters. Empirical studies of deception have focused on the benefits of cheating but have provided no data on the costs associated with being detected as a cheater. I present results from field experiments on rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) which show that individuals discovering food announce their discoveries by calling on 45% of all trials. Discoverers who failed to call, but were detected with food by other group members, received significantly more aggression than vocal discoverers. Moreover, silent female discoverers ate significantly less food than vocal females. This demonstrates that there are significant costs to withholding information. Such costs may constrain the frequency with which deception occurs in this and other populations.
Aggression↗
Deceptions in psychotherapy: case report and considerations.
Deliberate deception by a patient in psychotherapy is a deviation from a fundamental requirement of the patient-therapist relationship. When deceptions are discovered or admitted, it is crucial to analyze them for their value in understanding conflicts, transference relationships, and current stresses. These issues are illustrated with a case involving an elaborate deception carried out over several months by a patient in psychotherapy.
Adult↗
Fishy-looking liars: deception judgment from expectancy violation.
To explain how people judge that others are lying, an expectancy-violation model is proposed. According to the model, deception is perceived from nonverbal behavior that violates normative expectation. To test the model, 3 experiments were conducted, 2 in the United States and 1 in India. In each experiment, people described acquaintances while exhibiting weird nonverbal behaviors, such as arm raising, head tilting, and staring. Other Ss watched the videotapes of the descriptions and made deception judgments. Consistent with the expectancy-violation model, both American undergraduates and Indian illiterates inferred deception from weird behaviors. Implications of the model are discussed.
Adult↗
The roles of deception, intention to deceive, and motivation to avoid detection in the psychophysiological detection of guilty knowledge.
The present study focused on electrodermal differentiation between relevant and neutral items in the Guilty Knowledge paradigm. Three factors were varied in a between-subjects design. The role of deception was examined by varying the type of verbal answer to the questions ("yes," "no," and remaining silent). The intention to deceive factor was examined by contrasting subjects told to delay their answer ("yes" or "no") with those told to produce their answer immediately. Finally, motivation to avoid detection was manipulated by having half the subjects monetarily rewarded for an important (ego relevant) detection task (high motivation), whereas the remaining subjects were neither rewarded nor told that the task was important. The results indicated that a deceptive answer ("no") to the relevant question was associated with an increased differential skin conductance responsivity, but better than chance detection rates were obtained with truthful ("yes") and silent conditions. Equal and significant detection rates were observed when the responses were computed immediately following question presentation, whether the subjects had answered immediately or had delayed their answers. In contrast, differential electrodermal responsivity to the delayed answers was markedly attenuated. The motivation factor had no main or interactive effects on differential responsivity. The present results, together with those obtained in previous studies, suggest that whereas deception is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for psychophysiological detection, it may facilitate detection. Possible mechanisms through which such a facilitation could occur were considered.
Adult↗
A psychophysiological study of determinants for detection of deception.
Three studies were conducted to obtain available data on the determinants for detection of deception rates. (a) Psychophysiological measures were evaluated for effectiveness in detecting deception. A relevant-irrelevant method was used with two conditions; neutral stimulus and personal stimulus. Of the physiological variables, skin potential response, skin resistance response, finger pulse volume, and skin blood flow were significant indicators of deception. (b) Three experiments were conducted to study the psychophysiological effects of false and true feedback of skin potential response on the detection rates. It was concluded that the subjects receiving information that they were detectable were easier to detect than the subjects who believed that they were not detected and the subjects who received feedback of actual responses. (c) With the use of skin potential response channel, significant detection rates were obtained for all experiments under the condition that subjects verbally lied by means of "No" responses. On the other hand, the subjects who were motivated to deceive produced differentially augmented responses in the absence of any verbal response and also when the subjects told the truth to critical items and lied to irrelevant ones.
Adolescent↗
The drinking, passive smoking, smoking deception and serum cotinine in the Scottish Heart Health Study.
Following a recent claim that the use of cotinine in body fluids, to assess passive smoking and smoking "deception", was confounded by metabolic individuality, and by non-tobacco sources of dietary nicotine, particularly tea, data were examined from a large cross-sectional survey in a tea-drinking population. In 3383 men and women aged 40-59 years from the Scottish Heart Health Study, defined as non-smokers, both by self-report and by low thiocyanate and expired air carbon monoxide levels, serum cotinine showed minimal association with self-reported daily average tea consumption. However, there was a strong correlation between degree of self-reported passive tobacco smoke exposure and median serum cotinine level. In the same survey, serum cotinine in 4144 self-reported non-smokers and in 3326 smokers showed entirely different distributions, but the same range, suggesting heavy nicotine intake in some "non-smokers". These analyses confirm that cotinine levels in true non-smokers reflect far more the nicotine in inhaled ambient tobacco smoke than they do nicotine in tea. Some smoking "deceivers" have the same degree of exposure to nicotine as heavy smokers. Despite individual variability, the claim of confounding is poorly supported, and cotinine is confirmed as an indicator both of passive smoking and of smoking deception.
Adult↗
Deception and sabotage in autistic, retarded and normal children.
We investigated autistic, mentally retarded, and normal children's ability to deceive or obstruct an opponent. When required to tell a lie (saying that a box was locked) autistic children performed significantly worse than their controls, taking into account mental age. However, they readily prevented a competitor from gaining a reward by physical manipulation (locking a box). Their success on sabotage demonstrated that their failure on deception was not due to an inability to understand the task. Performance on deception was predicted by performance on a false belief attribution task. The present findings confirm that autistic children have a specific deficit in understanding and manipulating beliefs.
Adolescent↗
Oddball-evoked P300-based method of deception detection in the laboratory. II: Utilization of non-selective activation of relevant knowledge.
We used a deception paradigm modeled on the type used for pre-employment screening procedures. Our novel dependent measure was P300 amplitude. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded while subjects were presented with a list of eight antisocial acts one at a time, and one target-response phrase to which a 'yes' button press was required. Subjects were instructed to try to escape detection during the ERP test if they were guilty of any of the acts. After the ERP test, ground truth was established by the completion of an innocent/guilty check list of antisocial acts under perceived anonymous conditions tending to favor honest responding. Subjects were classified as innocent (n = 14) or guilty (n = 17) based on their check list response to the relevant act 'Used Falsified ID'. When comparing the P300 amplitudes in response to the relevant and to another act, we found that most group analyses revealed significant differences between guilty and innocent subjects. The subjects were also individually classified by a 3-step algorithm which involved: (1) a bootstrap amplitude test that compared the bootstrapped amplitudes of the P300s to the relevant and to another act; (2) relevant-to-target item P300 amplitude ratios; and (3) relevant act P300 amplitudes. Overall, the algorithm yielded 87% accuracy. The present study was intended to be an advance over our previous study (Rosenfeld, et al., 1991), in which we correctly classified 89% of the subjects using a similar P300-based deception detection paradigm. However, the possible confounding limitation of that study was that subjects had to complete an innocent/guilty check list of their antisocial acts prior to the ERP test. The present study investigated the accuracy of the P300-based test when subjects did not admit or selectively rehearse their guilt of the relevant act prior to the ERP test.
Electrodes↗
Deception among smokers.
Subjects in two different clinical trials who had been advised to stop smoking were asked if they had done so. Some 22% of subjects (11 out of 51) in the first trial and 40% (33/82) in the second trial who said they had stopped smoking were found to have raised carboxyhaemoglobin concentrations. Deception appears to be common in people trying to stop smoking.
Adolescent↗
On visibility: AIDS, deception by patients, and the responsibility of the doctor.
Contrary to the usual discussion of lying or deceiving in medical ethics literature where the lying or deceiving is done by the doctor or surgeon, this paper deals with lying or deceiving on the part of the patient. Three cases involving HIV-infected male homosexual or bisexual persons are presented. In each case the patient deceives or wants the doctor to deceive a third party on his behalf. Are such deceptions or lies expressions of compassion? Are they in the patient's best interests? Do they compromise the doctor's integrity? It is submitted that societal attitudes towards male homosexual acts were internalised by the men described in these cases. Thus, a dichotomy was created between the private life and the public image. Fear of condemnation by the doctor or others restricted communication towards the goal of the maintenance of the patient's health. The lack of trust which inhibits truth-telling results in mutual and progressive isolation and impedes the provision of optimal care.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
Nodular fasciitis of the head and neck in children. A deceptive lesion.
Nodular fasciitis represents a discrete, benign, presumably reactive proliferation of fibroblasts. However, its rapid rate of growth and a sarcomatous histologic appearance are often deceptive. Multiple pathologic reviews are frequently conducted in an attempt to distinguish nodular fasciitis from other lesions. Such confusion is especially problematic in the pediatric otolaryngic population in which nodular fasciitis is not commonly encountered and mesenchymal malignancies of the head and neck are of fundamental concern. Between 1976 and 1988, 12 cases of nodular fasciitis were diagnosed at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (Pa). Six children presented with head and neck lesions and ranged from 6 to 13 years of age. The clinical and histopathologic features of these cases are reviewed.
Adolescent↗
Deceptive bizarre stromal cells in polyps and ulcers of the gastrointestinal tract.
The clinical and pathologic features of 33 pseudomalignant lesions of the gastrointestinal tract with bizarre stromal cells are reported. Deceptive histologic changes were identified in ulcers of seven patients and in inflammatory polyps of 26. A misdiagnosis of malignant neoplasm was made in six of the 33 patients (three polyps and three ulcers). A history of gastrointestinal bleeding and/or inflammatory bowel disease was common. The bizarre stromal cells were usually distributed beneath the ulcerated mucosa or within granulation tissue. They stained strongly for vimentin in 20 of 23 cases. Some of the bizarre cells also stained for muscle specific actin (seven of 23 cases). The cells appear to be reactive fibroblasts or myofibroblasts. Follow-up information obtained on 24 of the 33 patients (including four of the six cases initially diagnosed as malignant) revealed 22 patients to be alive without evidence of a malignant neoplasm (average follow-up, 13 months). Two patients died of other causes. Correct recognition of these bizarre stromal cells in gastrointestinal ulcers and inflammatory polyps will prevent a potentially serious diagnostic pitfall.
Adult↗