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PubMed2026

Engineering extracellular vesicles for targeted siRNA delivery: Advances, therapeutic applications, and clinical translation.

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) therapeutics have emerged as a transformative approach for sequence-specific gene silencing, offering the potential to treat a broad spectrum of diseases by selectively suppressing disease-associated genes. However, the clinical translation of siRNA remains limited by rapid enzymatic degradation, poor cellular uptake, inadequate endosomal escape, and off-target effects, necessitating the development of efficient delivery systems. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have gained considerable attention as natural nanocarriers owing to their excellent biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, intrinsic targeting capability, and ability to protect therapeutic cargo while traversing complex biological barriers. This review comprehensively discusses the biological characteristics of EVs, the molecular basis of RNA interference, and the major challenges associated with siRNA delivery [Fig. 1]. Recent advances in EV engineering, including cargo-loading strategies such as electroporation, sonication, extrusion, parent-cell engineering, and microfluidic approaches, together with surface functionalization using peptides, antibodies, aptamers, and hybrid nanoplatforms, are critically evaluated for improving targeting specificity and intracellular delivery. Furthermore, the therapeutic applications of engineered EV-mediated siRNA delivery in cancer, neurological disorders, liver diseases, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory disorders, and infectious diseases are systematically summarized, highlighting their potential to enhance gene silencing while minimizing systemic toxicity. Current challenges related to large-scale manufacturing, cargo-loading efficiency, standardization, quality control, regulatory approval, and clinical translation are also discussed, together with emerging technologies involving synthetic biology, genome engineering, artificial intelligence, and multifunctional hybrid vesicles. Overall, engineered extracellular vesicles represent a highly versatile and biologically inspired platform for targeted siRNA delivery, providing a promising foundation for the development of next-generation precision RNA therapeutics and accelerating the clinical translation of gene-silencing strategies.

Extracellular vesicle engineering↗

PubMed2024

Disassembly of the TRIM56-ATR complex promotes cytoDNA/cGAS/STING axis-dependent intervertebral disc inflammatory degeneration.

As the leading cause of disability worldwide, low back pain (LBP) is recognized as a pivotal socioeconomic challenge to the aging population and is largely attributed to intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD). Elastic nucleus pulposus (NP) tissue is essential for the maintenance of IVD structural and functional integrity. The accumulation of senescent NP cells with an inflammatory hypersecretory phenotype due to aging and other damaging factors is a distinctive hallmark of IVDD initiation and progression. In this study, we reveal a mechanism of IVDD progression in which aberrant genomic DNA damage promoted NP cell inflammatory senescence via activation of the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase/stimulator of IFN genes (cGAS/STING) axis but not of absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome assembly. Ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated and Rad3-related protein (ATR) deficiency destroyed genomic integrity and led to cytosolic mislocalization of genomic DNA, which acted as a powerful driver of cGAS/STING axis-dependent inflammatory phenotype acquisition during NP cell senescence. Mechanistically, disassembly of the ATR-tripartite motif-containing 56 (ATR-TRIM56) complex with the enzymatic liberation of ubiquitin-specific peptidase 5 (USP5) and TRIM25 drove changes in ATR ubiquitination, with ATR switching from K63- to K48-linked modification, c thereby promoting ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent dynamic instability of ATR protein during NP cell senescence progression. Importantly, an engineered extracellular vesicle-based strategy for delivering ATR-overexpressing plasmid cargo efficiently diminished DNA damage-associated NP cell senescence and substantially mitigated IVDD progression, indicating promising targets and effective approaches to ameliorate the chronic pain and disabling effects of IVDD.

Humans↗

PubMed2026

Influence of protein aggregates, extracellular vesicles, and lipoprotein fusion on ionizable lipid nanoparticles protein corona analysis.

Since 2018, ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have revolutionized nucleic acid therapeutics. However, achieving potent extrahepatic delivery remains a formidable challenge, primarily due to rapid hepatic uptake driven by apolipoprotein adsorption. While analyzing the LNP protein corona is essential for engineering organ-specific tropism, these soft materials present unique analytical hurdles. Co-isolation of blood-borne contaminants, such as extracellular vesicles and lipoproteins, often masks the true corona composition. This perspective examines the critical need for refined proteomic strategies to distinguish genuine corona proteins from impurities. We propose tailored investigative approaches, suggesting the LNP protein corona significantly differs from the rigid shells observed on inorganic nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles↗

PubMed2025

Effect of extracellular vesicles in remodeling the tumor microenvironment by DNMT1 downregulation for enhanced cancer immunotherapy.

BACKGROUND: The efficacy of immunotherapy is often hindered by the suppression of immune responses via the tumor microenvironment (TME). The presence of cancer cells forces other proximal non-cancerous cells to support tumor growth and persistence. A clear example of this cancerous-to-non-cancerous communication is represented by the accumulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) within the TME. Several studies have convergently shown that the overexpression of DNA-methyl-transferase-1 (DNMT1) in these cells results in protection from necroptosis and enhanced accumulation in vivo. Conversely, targeting DNMT1 through hypo-methylating agents has shown promising therapeutic potential by not only reducing the levels of MDSCs but also enhancing cancer immunogenicity and the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI). METHODS: Murine 4T1 (triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC)) and CT26 (colon carcinoma) cell lines were cultured under standard conditions and used to generate tumor models in BALB/c mice. An oncolytic adenovirus expressing a DNMT1-targeting short hairpin RNA (OAd.shDNMT1) was engineered and validated for DNMT1 knockdown and genome-wide methylation reduction. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) were isolated from virus-infected cancer cells and characterized for RNA content and uptake by MDSCs. MDSC differentiation and suppressive function were assessed in vitro using flow cytometry and co-culture assays with murine splenocytes. In vivo, tumor-bearing mice received intratumoral OAd.shDNMT1, systemic decitabine, or immune checkpoint inhibitors (anti-Programmed cell Death protein-1), and tumor growth, immune infiltration, and systemic MDSC levels were evaluated. RESULTS: In this study, we report that, by using virally infected TNBC murine cells as a source for shDNMT1-loaded sEVs, OAd.shDNMT1 successfully reduced MDSC levels in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the co-administration with ICI resulted in a significant tumor growth reduction in mice bearing poorly immunogenic TNBC 4T1 cells. Also, our treatment promoted antitumor immunity, prolonged survival, and complete tumor eradication in modestly immunogenic colon CT26 cancer cells. CONCLUSION: This multifaceted strategy, based on OV-mediated immune stimulation and reduction of MDSC levels via sEVs, may improve clinical outcomes and the success of immuno-based regimens for patients facing MDSC-rich and highly aggressive cancer subtypes.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Probiotic-derived extracellular vesicles as food-based nanocarriers: Mechanisms, functional applications, and future perspectives in food systems.

Probiotic-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are a promising type of postbiotic nanoparticle derived by fermentation of probiotics, and have gained growing interest as a potential application in food science and nutrition. These are lipid bilayer vesicles of nanoscale, which are naturally released by probiotic cells and contain a wide variety of bioactive molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites. Moreover, PDEVs are highly stable, biocompatible, and can be easily engineered to have surfaces with high functionality, which makes them good candidates in functional engineering. In contrast to traditional live probiotics, PDEVs overcome the difficulties of preserving microbial viability during processing and storage, thus providing superior safety, stability, and predictable biological performance. This is a systematic review of the various functions of PDEVs in food systems. We conclude on the processes through which PDEVs control intestinal barrier integrity, alter gut microbiota composition, and alter host immune responses, and their potential to enhance gut health when added to functional foods. In addition to their health-promoting effects, PDEVs have shown significant potential as natural antimicrobial agents to preserve food and as effective nanocarriers of hydrophobic bioactive compounds, including fucoxanthin, to improve their stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery. Moreover, PDEVs can be used as new regulators of microbial fermentation. However, it should be noted that a lot of the evidence that is available is still preliminary and the effectiveness of these applications in real food-processing and storage conditions has not been fully proven. Although they have potential, there are a number of challenges that still hinder the widespread use of PDEVs in the food industry. These involve the creation of scalable and cost-effective production processes, batch-to-batch consistency, vesicle stability in a variety of food matrices, and regulatory and safety considerations. Other emerging engineering approaches, such as surface functionalization and cargo loading, are also discussed in this review and could further increase the specificity, functionality, and application versatility of PDEVs in food systems. Moving forward, the incorporation of PDEVs into the next generation functional foods, novel food preservation methods, and customized nutrition plans should be prioritized in future studies. Further developments in these fields can make PDEVs useful platforms at the interface of food microbiology, nanotechnology, and human health.

Probiotics↗

PubMed2026

Thrombin concentration shapes endothelial extracellular vesicle profiles with divergent inflammatory functions.

Thrombin, a central enzyme in the coagulation cascade, also regulates diverse cellular processes, including inflammation and vascular barrier function, primarily by activating protease-activated receptor 1. Previous studies demonstrated that thrombin elicits concentration-dependent, opposing effects; low concentrations confer anti-inflammatory and barrier-protective responses, whereas high concentrations promote inflammation and barrier disruption. The underlying mechanisms, however, remain incompletely understood. Here, we showed that thrombin stimulates extracellular vesicle (EV) release from endothelial cells across a broad concentration range and that EVs generated at low vs high thrombin concentrations carry distinct microRNA (miR) cargo. Low-thrombin EVs mediate cytoprotective responses via the transfer of miR-409-5p, which targets ubiquitin-specific protease 7 that promotes inflammation via the NF-kB signaling pathway in recipient cells, whereas high-thrombin EVs disrupt barrier integrity and promote inflammation through delivery of miR-155-5p, a regulator of suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 that acts as a crucial negative regulator of the cytokine signaling pathway. Functional manipulation of these EVs confirmed the causal roles. Incorporation of anti-miR-409-5p abrogated the protective effects of low-thrombin EVs, whereas anti-miR-155-5p suppressed the cytopathic effects of high-thrombin EVs. Moreover, control EVs engineered to carry a miR-409-5p mimic reproduced the anti-inflammatory and barrier-protective phenotype of low-thrombin EVs. Collectively, these findings identified EV-associated miRs as key mediators of the concentration-dependent dual actions of thrombin, which may open the therapeutic potential of EVs engineered to deliver selective miRs or anti-miRs for the treatment of inflammatory vascular diseases.

Thrombin↗

PubMed2026

Bacterial Outer Membrane Vesicles in Colorectal Cancer: Interdomain Communication Hubs in Pathogenesis and Immunotherapy.

The complex interaction between the intestinal microbiota and host mucosal immunity plays a defining role in colorectal cancer (CRC) development and therapeutic outcomes. Recently, bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs)-nano-sized, lipid-bilayered extracellular particulates released by both commensal and pathogenic microorganisms-have emerged as critical long-range signaling vehicles within the gut. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the dual functionalities of OMVs in CRC pathogenesis and oncology. Mechanistically, pathogenic OMVs cross compromised mucosal barriers to drive horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of chimeric episomes, such as SPHINX DNAs and Bovine Meat and Milk Factors (BMMFs), thereby promoting genomic instability and neoplastic transformation. Conversely, there is a paradigm shift toward exploiting next-generation probiotic and engineered OMVs as highly tunable therapeutic platforms. By combining cutting-edge bioengineering strategies-such as biomimetic mineralization to neutralize local tissue acidity and chemotherapeutic packaging-these nanovectors effectively reprogram the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Specifically, optimized OMVs modulate macrophage polarization from an M2 to an M1 phenotype and stimulate CXCL10-mediated CD8+ T-cell infiltration, effectively turning immunologically "cold" tumors "hot." Finally, the great translational challenges regarding systemic endotoxicity, scalability, and target delivery, providing a strategic approach for the integration of OMV-based platforms into synergistic immune checkpoint inhibition regimens.

Colon cancer↗

PubMed2026

The present and future of nonviral delivery-based genome editing for hereditary hearing loss.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review summarizes nonviral genome-editing delivery platforms for hereditary hearing loss, focusing on lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) and engineered virus-like particles (eVLPs), and discusses their advantages over adeno-associated virus-based delivery, as well as the barriers to clinical translation. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent advances have established LNPs as a clinically advanced nonviral platform, although challenges related to inner ear biodistribution, cell type specificity, endosomal escape, and immunogenicity remain to be addressed. In parallel, eVLPs have undergone substantial technical evolution, progressing from early low efficiency systems to advanced base editor- and prime editor-eVLP architectures that enhance cargo loading and editing efficiency. Extracellular vesicle-based genome editing has also emerged as an additional platform, although issues related to reproducibility, loading efficiency, and scalability remain major hurdles. SUMMARY: Nonviral genome editing platforms expand the therapeutic toolkit for hereditary hearing loss by enabling transient delivery of genome editors with potential safety advantages. Future efforts should focus on characterizing biodistribution and immunogenicity, refining cell type-specific tropism, and establishing scalable manufacturing processes to enable successful clinical translation.

Humans↗

PubMed2026

Mechanotransduction in musculoskeletal mesenchymal tissues: implications for bone, tendon, and cartilage regenerative engineering-a narrative review.

PURPOSE/AIM OF THE STUDY: To integrate evidence on how mechanical signals regulate musculoskeletal connective-tissue biology and how cellular context and loading history shape mechanotransduction and mechanical memory. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This narrative review synthesized PubMed-indexed evidence on extracellular matrix mechanics, adhesion complexes, the cytoskeleton, nucleus, primary cilia, mechanosensitive ion channels, cell state, and loading history in bone, tendon, ligament, and cartilage. RESULTS: Mechanotransduction is best understood as a coupled extracellular matrix-integrin-cytoskeleton-nucleus continuum rather than as independent cytoskeletal or nuclear drivers. Responses are conditioned by lineage stage, anatomic niche, inflammation, cellular subpopulation, and prior mechanical exposure. Mechanical memory may be encoded through persistent YAP/TAZ activity, microRNA programs, DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin architecture, and metabolic remodeling. Evidence is strongest for bone, including Piezo-dependent osteogenesis, TRPV4-mediated shear sensing, viscoelastic compression, osteocyte-stromal extracellular-vesicle signaling, and osteogenesis-angiogenesis coupling. Tendon and ligament require anisotropic architecture and strain-window control, whereas cartilage shows a narrow distinction between physiologic TRPV4-associated anabolism and high-strain or inflammation-sensitized Piezo/YAP-mediated maladaptation. CONCLUSIONS: Translational implications include mechanically defined cell expansion, biomaterial preconditioning, stage-specific rehabilitation, and potency assays incorporating loading history. Direct clinical validation of stable perioperative cellular mechanical memory remains limited. Future studies should combine controlled mechanical perturbation with bulk and single-cell RNA sequencing, chromatin-accessibility profiling, spatial methods, and perturbational genomics.

Mechanotransduction↗