Evaluating industrial alcoholism programs. A human-capital approach.
A human-capital model for explaining decisions of businessmen regarding initiation or continuation of employee alcoholism treatment programs is proposed.
Alcoholism↗
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[ABC of practice management. H-human capital].
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Adult↗
Human capitalism and intergenerational justice.
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Age Factors↗
A human capital approach to ICU nurse retention.
Nursing staff turnover is a critical personnel problem for nursing administrators and top hospital management. High turnover rates degrade the quality of patient care. They are economically dysfunctional when they reduce the capacity of hospital units; the facility loses revenues which can in turn exacerbate retention problems. Good management practice requires that nursing staff turnover be closely and routinely monitored with indices reporting both personnel numbers and staff experience status. The author describes an approach to the prevention of dysfunctional turnover levels by the establishment of retention objectives funded in the hospital budget.
California↗
[Theory of "human capital": the limits of its use in bourgeois public health economics].
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Economics↗
A case at last for age-phased reduction in equity.
Maximizing expected utility over a lifetime leads one who has constant relative risk aversion and faces random-walk securities returns to be "myopic" and hold the same fraction of portfolio in equities early and late in life--a defiance of folk wisdom and casual introspection. By assuming one needs to assure at retirement a minimum ("subsistence") level of wealth, the present analysis deduces a pattern of greater risk-taking when young than when old. When a subsistence minimum is needed at every period of life, the rentier paradoxically is least risk tolerant in youth--the Robert C. Merton paradox that traces to the decline with age of the present discounted value of the subsistence-consumption requirements. Conversely, the decline with age of capitalized human capital reverses the Merton effect.
Aging↗
Health status of vulnerable populations.
The notion of risk underlying the concept of vulnerability implies that everyone is potentially vulnerable (or at risk), that is, there is always a chance of developing health problems. The risk is, however, greater for those with the least social status, social capital, and human capital resources to either prevent or ameliorate the origins and consequences of poor physical, psychological, or social health. The completeness and accuracy of information on the health status of the vulnerable populations examined here varies substantially across groups. Methodological work is needed to derive standardized definitions of terms, specify the content and timing for collecting information for minimum basic data sets, and develop uniform standards for evaluating and reporting data quality on the health status of vulnerable populations. The variety of indicators of vulnerable populations examined indicates that during the decade of the 1980s the incidence of serious physical, psychological, and/or social needs increased (at worst) and was unameliorated (at best) for millions of Americans. AIDS emerged as a new and deadly threat from a handful of cases classified as Gay-Related Immune Deficiency in the early part of the 1980s to what now may be over a million Americans who are HIV-positive. The number of homeless has increased an average of 20% a year to estimates now ranging up to one million men, women, or children homeless on any given night to twice that number who may be homeless sometime during the year. Over seven million people immigrated to the United States during the period from 1981 to 1990--an increasing proportion of whom are refugees carrying with them the physical, psychological, and social wounds of war. The number of children abused by family members or other intimates has burgeoned to an estimated 1.6 to 1.7 million per year, and with the greater use of firearms, intentional acts of violence towards oneself or others are becoming increasingly deadly in their consequences. Though fewer Americans smoke, drink, and use illicit drugs in general than was the case earlier in the decade of the 1980s, the use of cocaine (and particularly crack) among hard-core addicts has resulted in increases in the number of drug-related deaths.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
The economic value of life: linking theory to practice.
Human capital estimates of the economic value of life have been routinely used in the past to perform cost-benefit analyses of health programs. Recently, however, serious questions have been raised concerning the conceptual basis for valuing human life by applying these estimates. Most economists writing on these issues tend to agree that a more conceptually correct method to value risks to human life in cost-benefit analyses would be based on individuals.' "willingness to pay" for small changes in their probability of survival. Attempts to implement the willingness-to-pay approach using survey responses or revealed-preference estimates have produced a confusing array of values fraught with statistical problems and measurement difficulties. As a result, economists have searched for a link between willingness to pay and standard human capital estimates and have found that for most individuals a lower bound for valuing risks to life can be based on their willingness to pay to avoid the expected economic losses associated with death. However, while these studies provide support for using individual's private valuation of forgone income in valuing risks to life, it is also clear that standard human capital estimates cannot be used for this purpose without reformulation. After reviewing the major approaches to valuing risks to life, this paper concludes that estimates based on the human capital approach--reformulated using a willingness-to-pay criterion--produce the only clear, consistent, and objective values for use in cost-benefit analyses of policies affecting risks to life. The paper presents the first empirical estimates of such adjusted willingness-to-pay/human capital values.
Adolescent↗
The life-cycle research productivity of mathematicians and scientists.
Declining research productivity with age is implied by economic models of life-cycle human capital investment but is denied by some recent empirical studies. The purpose of the present study is to provide new evidence on whether a scientist's output generally declines with advancing age. A longitudinal data set has been compiled for scientists and mathematicians at six major departments, including data on age, salaries, annual citations (stock of human capital), citations to current output (flow of human capital), and quantity of current output measured both in number of articles and in number of pages. Analysis of the data indicates that salaries peak from the early to mid-60s, whereas annual citations appear to peak from age 39 to 89 for different departments with a mean age of 59 for the 6 departments. The quantity and quality of current research output appear to decline continuously with age.
Adult↗
A recursive model of economic well-being in retirement.
Although investigators have identified some of the social and economic forces that influence levels of economic resources among elderly adults, little has been done to organize these factors into predictive lifespan models of economic well-being. Applying path analysis to data on retiring workers from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, the present research offers a beginning recursive model. It traces the influences of demographic/family background, human capital, and work-related characteristics on economic position in retirement. Controlling for differences in labor force participation and other human capital measures, race and family background lose their direct significance, whereas sex remains directly significant in predicting economic resource levels for recently retired workers. In addition, the model estimates the direct and indirect effects played by industrial sector location and social class position. In total the structurally based capital attainment model explains 65% of the variance in a measure of economic well-being that includes retirement income and wealth.
Aged↗
Health costs of occupational disease in New York State.
Occupational diseases and deaths are costly events. They are responsible for: 1) direct medical costs; 2) indirect costs, resulting from lost production, foregone opportunities, and diminished investment; and 3) non-economic costs, including pain and suffering, disrupted careers, and devastated families. To develop a partial estimate of the total costs of occupational disease in New York State, we have examined four categories of illness: occupational cancer, chronic respiratory disease and the pneumoconioses, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular disease, and end-stage renal failure. We base our partial estimate on the human capital approach to the costs of these illnesses. Using the best measures available, including both incidence and prevalence statistics, mortality records, and a variety of financial data, we employ two cost accounting techniques of the human capital approach, the incidence method, and the prevalence method. Our analysis shows that these four occupational illnesses are costing New York over $600 million per year. This figure is a pragmatic but conservative, lower-bound estimate of the relative magnitude of total economic costs of occupational disease in New York State. The largest proportion of these costs (80%) is due to occupational cancer. The failure of the health care system to recognize the costs of occupational disease precludes recognition of the economic benefits which would result from preventing these illnesses. This study, it is hoped, will stimulate advances in epidemiological and economic approaches to resolve this important measurement problem.
Adult↗
Shear strength of the human femoral capital epiphyseal plate.
After the determination of the shear strength and modes of failure of the capital femoral epiphyseal plates in twenty-five pairs of hips obtained post mortem from children five days to fifteen years and ten months old, with the plate intact on one side and with the perichondrial fibrocartilaginous complex removed on the other, the gross and microscopic morphology was studied. The shear strength of the human epiphyseal plate varied with age and was greatly dependent on the surrounding perichondrial complex in infancy and early childhood, but less so in adolescence. When this complex was excised, the strength of the epiphyseal plate was diminished, especially in specimens from younger children. The forces necessary to cause slipping were found to be within the physiological range of the force that would be generated in overweight children, suggesting that purely mechanical factors may play a major role in the etiology of slipped capital femoral epiphysis.
Adolescent↗
Age discrimination in earnings in a dual-economy market.
Age discrimination in earnings has been difficult to establish because of the confounding effects of human capital variables that deteriorate as workers grow older. To assess the extent to which declining earnings result from discrimination, this study examines the age-earnings relationship for a panel of older workers in 1966 and 1976, simultaneously controlling for human capital variables and other variables related to both age and earnings. In addition, following literature that suggests that the economic sector in which employed influences this relationship, interactions by core/periphery sector are examined. Age-based discrimination is found for core sector workers, and as expected, becomes more prevalent as the workers grow older. These findings are discussed in light of claims that older workers, especially in the core sector, have lost power in the work place.
Age Factors↗
Supported work for ex-addicts: an exploration of endogenous tastes.
The expected impact of Supported Work on former drug addicts' employment, crime, and drug use are derived from two models: the human capital model and a model of endogenous tastes. Empirically, Supported Work is found to increase the earnings of at least some ex-addicts, primarily due to increases in hours worked rather than wage rates. The program also reduced ex-addicts' crime, producing the greatest impact on the robbery and drug-related crimes and changing relationship between crime and employment. The program did not affect ex-addicts' recidivism to drugs. The pattern effects only partially supports the human capital model, and there is also some support for the model of endogenous tastes.
Employment↗
Gender influences on earnings of obstetrician-gynecologists.
OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that the observed difference in earnings between male and female obstetrician-gynecologists could be explained by variations in productivity and human capital. METHODS: Data from a 1991 national survey of ACOG Fellows were used to provide a descriptive analysis of male and female obstetrician-gynecologists' demographic characteristics, net income, experience, practice characteristics, workload, and practice activities. Variables found to have a significant impact on net income or to vary significantly by sex were included in a multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: Twenty-one percent of the 1286 survey respondents were female obstetrician-gynecologists. Women were almost twice as likely as men to be in salaried positions (P < .001) and more than twice as likely to have less than 10 years of experience (P < .001). Women reported fewer annual patient-contact hours (P < .05) and performed fewer than half as many hysterectomies (P < .001). Average annual earnings for women were 71% of men's annual net income (P < .001). The multivariate regression analysis found that male-female differences in the factors included in the analysis (ie, workload, experience, practice type) resulted in an 18.7% male-female income gap. The analysis also revealed an income gap of 14.2% that was not accounted for by differences in the objective factors included in the model. CONCLUSION: More than half of the overall male-female income gap was explained by differences in personal and practice characteristics. However, female obstetrician-gynecologists earned 14.2% less than men, after controlling for variations in productivity and human capital.
Adult↗
A reconsideration of the economic consequences of marital dissolution.
A close look at the income flows in the years following a divorce or separation reveals marked differences in the distribution of effects. The economic consequences of divorce are especially adverse for women. In most cases, children remain with the mother, who usually has considerably lower potential labor market earnings than her former husband, partly because her responsibilities for the children are likely to reduce her labor supply and may have limited her past human capital investments. Alimony and child support are the principal mechanisms for transfers from the ex-husband to the ex-wife, but payments are rarely frequent or sizeable enough to make up for an appreciable amount of the labor income lost through the departure of the ex-husband. Human capital investments on the part of the mother have a modest effect on her economic situation in the years following the divorce. Most men who divorce or separate are immediately better off because they retain most of their labor incomes, typically do not pay large amounts of alimony and child support to their ex-wives, and no longer have to provide for the level of needs associated with their former families. Much more important than growth in the ex-wife's own labor income is the role of a new husband's labor income upon her remarriage. More than half of the white women remarry within five years following a divorce or separation; the comparable fraction for black women is less than half. An interesting question is whether the currently unmarried would enjoy the same kind of economic benefits, were they to remarry, as women who have remarried. Estimates from a model of the new husband's labor income, adjusted for selection bias inherent in the process of remarriage, indicate that the currently unmarried would probably not gain equal benefits if they were to remarry. The expected labor income of potential husbands of black women averages only about $5000--a modest amount when compared with the alternatives available to these women.
Black or African American↗
Cisplatin-based combination chemotherapy in the treatment of advanced-stage testicular cancer: cost-benefit analysis.
A cost-benefit analysis of the impact of cisplatin-based combination chemotherapy for treatment of disseminated testicular cancer showed that the annual estimated economic value of this treatment innovation in the United States is approximately $150 million. The estimate was based on the human capital approach, which conservatively values a human life in terms of economic productivity. Because testicular cancer predominantly strikes young adult males, the savings reported were due to the future earning potential of the survivors. A comparison of relevant National Cancer Institute (NCI) costs for drug development and clinical trials versus annual savings realized indicated that the total costs over a 17-year period are recovered in less than 1 year. This report is an example of health care cost savings resulting from NCI support of biomedical research.
Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols↗
Family human and social capital and young adults' educational attainment and occupational aspirations.
The study examined relations between family human and social capital and the educational attainment and occupational aspirations of 420 Australian 20-yr.-olds. After taking into account the relations between human capital and the outcome scores, the findings indicated that family social capital had significant associations with the young adults' attainment and aspirations.
Achievement↗