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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed1998

No role for motion blur in either motion detection or motion-based image segmentation.

The human contrast sensitivity function is bandpass in form for stimuli of low temporal frequency but low pass for flickering or moving stimuli. Because the loss in sensitivity to moving stimuli is large, images moving on the retina have little perceptible high-spatial-frequency content. The loss of high-spatial-frequency content--often referred to as motion blur--provides a potential cue to motion. The amount of motion blur is a function of stimulus velocity but is significant at velocities encountered by the visual system in everyday situations. Our experiments determined the influence of high-spatial-frequency losses induced by motion of this order on motion detection and on motion-based image segmentation. Motion detection and motion-based segmentation tasks were performed with either spectrally low-pass or spectrally broadband stimuli. Performance on these tasks was compared with a condition having no motion but in which form differences mimicked the perceptual loss of high spatial frequencies produced by motion. This allowed the relative salience of motion and motion-induced blur to be determined. Neither image segmentation nor motion detection was sensitive to the high-spatial-frequency content of the stimuli. Thus the change in perceptual form produced in moving stimuli is not normally used as a cue either for motion detection or for motion-based image segmentation in ordinary situations.

Contrast Sensitivity↗

PubMed1999

Motion-transparent inducers have different effects on induced motion and motion capture.

To assess the relationship among the underlying mechanisms of induced motion, motion capture, and motion transparency, directions of the former two illusions in the presence of motion-transparent inducers were examined. Two random-dot patterns (inducers) were superimposed upon a stationary disk (target), and moved in orthogonal directions. Either a high-contrast target (for induced motion) or a low-contrast target (for motion capture) was used. The task was to report the perceived direction of the target. The depth order of inducers was controlled either by adding binocular disparity or by asking the subject to report subjective depth order. For induced motion, the target appeared to move in the direction opposite to the inducer that had a disparity closer to the target; when there was no difference in disparity, induced motion occurred oppositely to the 'vector sum' of the inducers' directions. For motion capture, the target was captured by the inducer that subjectively appeared behind. These results suggest that the underlying mechanism of motion capture utilizes the output from the process for motion transparency, whereas induced motion has no clear relationship to the output of the process for motion transparency.

Contrast Sensitivity↗

PubMed1997

Dependencies of motion assimilation and motion contrast on spatial properties of stimuli: spatial-frequency nonselective and selective interactions between local motion detectors.

Two sets of experiments were carried out to examine dependencies of two types of induced motion (motion assimilation and motion contrast) on spatial properties of stimuli in terms of spatial-frequency tuning of local motion detectors. In the first set, the magnitudes of motion assimilation and motion contrast for a sinusoidal grating were measured at a function of the spatial frequency of the inducing gratings, with the spatial frequency of the test grating as a parameter. In the second set, the magnitudes were measured as a function of the height of the inducing gratings with the spatial frequencies of the test and the inducing gratings as parameters. For motion assimilation, the magnitude was characterized by a low-pass function of the spatial frequency of the inducing gratings, and the critical height of the inducing gratings, which demarcates the extent of the spatial pooling, varied systematically depending on the spatial frequency of the inducing gratings. For motion contrast, on the other hand, the magnitude was characterized by a hand-pass function, and the critical height depended on the frequency of the test grating. These results suggest that motion assimilation is mediated by the spatial-frequency nonselective interaction between the local detectors, in which the motion signals of the detectors tuned to different spatial frequencies are integrated with each other. Motion contrast is mediated by the spatial-frequency selective interaction, in which the motion signals of the local detectors tuned to the same or similar spatial frequencies are compared and differentiated.

Contrast Sensitivity↗

PubMed2004

Evaluation of internal lung motion for respiratory-gated radiotherapy using MRI: Part I--correlating internal lung motion with skin fiducial motion.

PURPOSE: To measure the internal lung motion due to respiration using magnetic resonance images (MRIs); to evaluate the correlation between lung motion and skin surface motion and the reliability of tracking lung motion with external fiducials. METHODS AND MATERIALS: An MRI protocol using fast gradient-echo sequences was developed to acquire dynamic cine images of the thoracoabdominal region along the axial, sagittal, and coronal planes. The subjects (3 healthy volunteers and 4 lung cancer patients) were instructed to perform normal or altered breathing during MRI. Lung vessels identified on MRI were used as anatomic landmarks for internal lung structures. From sagittal cine MRI scans, the positions of the lung vessels and skin surface were tracked and their movements measured. Correlation between the movements of the external markers and internal structures was then calculated and analyzed. RESULTS: Lung vessel motion in the superior-inferior (SI) direction correlated best with mid-upper abdominal skin surface movement (correlation coefficient, 0.89 +/- 0.09 and 0.87 +/- 0.23 for volunteers and patients, respectively). The anterior-posterior (AP) vessel motion generally correlated poorly with the skin surface movement, with marker placement on the upper chest yielding the strongest results (correlation coefficient, 0.72 +/- 0.23 and 0.44 +/- 0.27 for volunteers and patients, respectively). The strength of the correlation depended on the locations of the tracked vessels, locations of the skin surface, and subjects' breathing patterns. The best correlation was seen between the motion of an abdominal fiducial and SI lung motion. Significant intersubject variability was also observed. CONCLUSION: Movement of an external fiducial may not correlate fully with, or predict, internal lung motion. Effective monitoring of respiration may have to rely on a combination of multiple fiducials and other physiologic parameters, such as lung volume and/or air flow.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Quantifying motion in video recordings of neonatal seizures by robust motion trackers based on block motion models.

This paper introduces a methodology for the development of robust motion trackers for video based on block motion models. According to this methodology, the motion of a site between two successive frames is estimated by minimizing an error function defined in terms of the intensities at these frames. The proposed methodology is used to develop robust motion trackers that rely on fractional block motion models. The motion trackers developed in this paper are utilized to extract motor activity signals from video recordings of neonatal seizures. The experimental results reveal that the proposed motion trackers are more accurate and reliable than existing motion tracking methods relying on pure translation and affine block motion models.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1990

Intact "biological motion" and "structure from motion" perception in a patient with impaired motion mechanisms: a case study.

A series of psychophysical tests examining early and later aspects of image-motion processing were conducted in a patient with bilateral lesions involving the posterior visual pathways, affecting the lateral parietal-temporal-occipital cortex and the underlying white matter (as shown by magnetic resonance imaging studies and confirmed by neuro-ophthalmological and neuropsychological examinations). Visual acuity, form discrimination, color, and contrast-sensitivity discrimination were normal whereas spatial localization, line bisection, depth, and binocular stereopsis were severely impaired. Performance on early motion tasks was very poor. These include seeing coherent motion in random noise (Newsome & Paré, 1988), speed discrimination, and seeing two-dimensional form from relative speed of motion. However, on higher-order motion tasks the patient was able to identify actions from the evolving pattern of dots placed at the joints of a human actor (Johansson, 1973) as well as discriminating three-dimensional structure of a cylinder from motion in a dynamic random-dot field. The pattern of these results is at odds with the hypothesis that precise metrical comparison of early motion measurements is necessary for higher-order "structure from motion" tasks.

Cerebral Cortex↗

PubMed2006

Motion perception in the ageing visual system: minimum motion, motion coherence, and speed discrimination thresholds.

We aimed to address two issues: first, to describe how the perception of motion differs in elderly observers as compared to younger ones; and, second, to see if these changes in motion perception could be accounted for by the known changes in the ability of elderly observers to detect patterns (as indexed via contrast sensitivity). The lower threshold of motion, motion coherence, and speed discrimination were measured, alongside contrast sensitivity, in a group of thirty-two older (mean age 61.5 years) and thirty-two younger (mean age 23.2 years) subjects. The older observers showed losses in their ability to detect slow motions as indexed via the lower threshold of motion for random-dot patterns and for gratings of a range of spatial frequencies. They also were impaired on a test of motion coherence, but only for stimuli of a slow to medium speed, whereas faster speeds showed no decline with age. Finally, at all speeds tested the older observers required greater differences in speed in order to discriminate between patterns moving at different speeds. The pattern of losses on motion perception tasks was not predicted by the deficits of the older groups, such as loss of detection thresholds for high spatial and/or temporal frequencies. It is concluded that these hypotheses do not provide an adequate account of the data, and therefore that the losses occurring with age are complex and probably are a result of the loss of several types of cell.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Spatiotemporal motion boundary detection and motion boundary velocity estimation for tracking moving objects with a moving camera: a level sets PDEs approach with concurrent camera motion compensation.

The purpose of this study is to investigate a method of tracking moving objects with a moving camera. This method estimates simultaneously the motion induced by camera movement. The problem is formulated as a Bayesian motion-based partitioning problem in the spatiotemporal domain of the image quence. An energy functional is derived from the Bayesian formulation. The Euler-Lagrange descent equations determine imultaneously an estimate of the image motion field induced by camera motion and an estimate of the spatiotemporal motion undary surface. The Euler-Lagrange equation corresponding to the surface is expressed as a level-set partial differential equation for topology independence and numerically stable implementation. The method can be initialized simply and can track multiple objects with nonsimultaneous motions. Velocities on motion boundaries can be estimated from geometrical properties of the motion boundary. Several examples of experimental verification are given using synthetic and real-image sequences.

Algorithms↗

PubMed2007

Second-order motion without awareness: passive adaptation to second-order motion produces a motion aftereffect.

Although second-order motion may be detected by early and automatic mechanisms, some models suggest that perceiving second-order motion requires higher-order processes, such as feature or attentive tracking. These types of attentionally mediated mechanisms could explain the motion aftereffect (MAE) perceived in dynamic displays after adapting to second-order motion. Here we tested whether there is a second-order MAE in the absence of attention or awareness. If awareness of motion, mediated by high-level or top-down mechanisms, is necessary for the second-order MAE, then there should be no measurable MAE if the ability to detect directionality is impaired during adaptation. To eliminate the subject's ability to detect directionality of the adapting stimulus, a second-order drifting Gabor was embedded in a dense array of additional crowding Gabors. We found that a significant MAE was perceived even after adaptation to second-order motion in crowded displays that prevented awareness. The results demonstrate that second-order motion can be passively coded in the absence of awareness and without top-down attentional control.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1989

Reaction times to motion onset and motion detection thresholds reflect the properties of bilocal motion detectors.

Several different psychophysical paradigms are used to study human motion perception. A unifying framework for the interpretation of all data is lacking. As a step towards a universal model for motion detection we show that previously published reaction times to motion onset and thresholds for the detection of periodic motion may be derived from the velocity dependent properties of bilocal motion detectors of the Reichardt correlator type. Thus, these data sets seem to support the concept of bilocal motion detectors.

Humans↗

PubMed1999

Perception of coherent motion, biological motion and form-from-motion under dim-light conditions.

Three experiments investigated several aspects of motion perception at high and low luminance levels. Detection of weak coherent motion in random dot cinematograms was unaffected by light level over a range of dot speeds. The ability to judge form from motion was, however, impaired at low light levels, as was the ability to discriminate normal from phase-scrambled biological motion sequences. The difficulty distinguishing differential motions may be explained by increased spatial pooling at low light levels.

Form Perception↗

PubMed1992

Adaptation to auditory motion in the horizontal plane: effect of prior exposure to motion on motion detectability.

Thresholds for auditory motion detectability were measured in a darkened anechoic chamber while subjects were adapted to horizontally moving sound sources of various velocities. All stimuli were 500-Hz lowpass noises presented at a level of 55 dBA. The threshold measure employed was the minimum audible movement angle (MAMA)--that is, the minimum angle a horizontally moving sound must traverse to be just discriminable from a stationary sound. In an adaptive, two-interval forced-choice procedure, trials occurred every 2-5 sec (Experiment 1) or every 10-12 sec (Experiment 2). Intertrial time was "filled" with exposure to the adaptor--a stimulus that repeatedly traversed the subject's front hemifield at ear level (distance: 1.7 m) at a constant velocity (-150 degrees/sec to +150 degrees/sec) during a run. Average MAMAs in the control condition, in which the adaptor was stationary (0 degrees/sec,) were 2.4 degrees (Experiment 1) and 3.0 degrees (Experiment 2). Three out of 4 subjects in each experiment showed significantly elevated MAMAs (by up to 60%), with some adaptors relative to the control condition. However, there were large intersubject differences in the shape of the MAMA versus adaptor velocity functions. This loss of sensitivity to motion that most subjects show after exposure to moving signals is probably one component underlying the auditory motion aftereffect (Grantham, 1989), in which judgments of the direction of moving sounds are biased in the direction opposite to that of a previously presented adaptor.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Quantitative analysis of facial motion components: anatomic and nonanatomic motion in normal persons and in patients with complete facial paralysis.

The maximal static response assay of facial motion, described in 1994, enables the simultaneous measurement of multiple facial motions by tracking the positions of specific facial points. While the maximal static response assay provides accurate measurement of facial motion, the analysis of these data lacks the simplicity of a single-number scale such as the House-Brackmann system, a subjective scale traditionally used to classify facial function. The purpose of this study was to develop a simplified numerical index capable of summarizing the data generated by the maximal static response assay in a clinically meaningful way. We also wanted to develop a method whereby only anatomic motion or nonanatomic motion in the paralyzed face could be quantitated. Anatomic motion is the motion of the specific facial points studied by the maximal static response assay that can be attributed solely to the pull of the regional facial muscles that govern the movement of those points. Nonanatomic motion is motion that is secondary to the pull of the unaffected contralateral muscles that is transmitted to the paralyzed hemiface. Thirty-four patients with complete facial paralysis were studied. The maximal static response assay was performed on all patients on presentation to the Facial Nerve Center at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center or after development of complete facial palsy postoperatively. The data from these patients were compared with maximal static response assay data from 26 unaffected controls. The anatomic index of facial motion and the nonanatomic index of facial motion were calculated for all study participants. The anatomic index of facial motion measures anatomic facial motion, and the nonanatomic index of facial motion measures nonanatomic facial motion. To calculate the anatomic index of facial motion, the vector magnitudes of the supraorbital, infraorbital, and modiolar motions during brow lift, eye closure, and smile are summed. The anatomic index of facial motion represents a ratio of this sum on the affected side to the corresponding sum on the unaffected side using only anatomic motions. The nonanatomic index of facial motion is a similar ratio using nonanatomic motion only (i.e., motions in directions that cannot be produced by the ipsilateral muscles). The anatomic index of facial motion represents a single number that can be used to assess facial motion. The value of the anatomic index of facial motion for patients with complete facial paralysis is 0.07 +/- 0.08. The anatomic index of facial motion for normal individuals is 1.05 +/- 0.13 (p < 0.0001, Mann-Whitney rank-sum test). The nonanatomic index of facial motion in normal individuals is 0.05 +/- 0.08; in patients with complete facial paralysis, it is 0.34 +/- 0.32 (p < 0.0001, Mann-Whitney rank-sum test). During recovery from complete facial paralysis, the anatomic index of facial motion and the nonanatomic index of facial motion each revert steadily toward normal values. The anatomic index of facial motion and the nonanatomic index of facial motion are single numbers based on the maximal static response assay, which quantitatively describes anatomic motion and nonanatomic motion in patients with complete facial paralysis. Although patients with complete facial paralysis have motion on the paralyzed hemiface, the motion is primarily nonanatomic. Both indices can be used to track recovery from complete facial paralysis.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Sagittal plane segmental motion of the cervical spine. A new precision measurement protocol and normal motion data of healthy adults.

OBJECTIVE: (1) Precise documentation of sagittal plane segmental rotational and posteroanterior translational motion of segments C0/C1-C6/C7 of the human cervical spine from lateral radiographic views. (2) Compilation of a database describing normal motion. (3) Comparison of individual motion patterns with the normal database. DESIGN: Descriptive study based on computer-aided measurements from lateral radiographic views taken in flexion and extension. BACKGROUND: Previous studies concentrated on segmental rotational motion of the cervical spine. Normal data for translational motion were not available. Description of cervical spine motion patterns thus remained incomplete. METHODS: Based on computer-aided measurements from lateral radiographic views taken in flexion and extension, a new protocol determines rotational and translational motion for all segments (C0/C1-C6/C7) imaged on the radiographic views. Measured results are corrected for radiographic magnification and variation in stature; they are virtually uninfluenced by radiographic distortion and patient alignment errors. A database describing normal motion was compiled from 137 sets of lateral views of healthy adults taken in active flexion and extension. A specimen study as well as inter- and intra-observer studies quantify measurement errors. RESULTS: The error study demonstrated the error (SD) of a rotational motion measurement to amount to slightly less than 2 degrees. The error (SD) of a translational motion measurement amounts to less than 5% of vertebral depth; for a vertebra of 15 mm depth this corresponds to 0.7 mm. A normal database for rotational and translational motion was compiled. There was a linear relation between rotational and translational motion. This finding agrees qualitatively with results from previous studies; quantitative comparisons are not possible due to divergent definitions for translational motion. The relation between rotation and translation can be employed in individual cases to predict translational motion, in dependence on the rotation actually performed. A comparison of the rotational motion with the normal database and the difference between predicted and actual translational motion allow segmental hypo-, normal or hypermobility to be quantified. CONCLUSIONS: The new protocol measures segmental motion with high precision and corrects for radiographic distortion, variation in stature and alignment errors of patients. Thus, archive studies using existing radiographs are feasible. RELEVANCE: Flexion-extension radiographs of the cervical spine are performed to explore potential damage to the bony or ligamentous structure resulting in abnormal, segmental motion patterns. Determining rotational motion gives only an incomplete picture. The new protocol allows for precise quantification of translational motion and classification of segments as hypo- or hypermobile by comparison with normal motion data.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Cortical dynamics of visual motion perception: short-range and long-range apparent motion.

This article describes further evidence for a new neural network theory of biological motion perception. The theory clarifies why parallel streams V1----V2, V1----MT, and V1----V2----MT exist for static form and motion form processing among the areas V1, V2, and MT of visual cortex. The theory suggests that the static form system (Static BCS) generates emergent boundary segmentations whose outputs are insensitive to direction-of-contrast and to direction-of-motion, whereas the motion form system (Motion BCS) generates emergent boundary segmentations whose outputs are insensitive to direction-of-contrast but sensitive to direction-of-motion. The theory is used to explain classical and recent data about short-range and long-range apparent motion percepts that have not yet been explained by alternative models. These data include beta motion, split motion, gamma motion and reverse-contrast gamma motion, delta motion, and visual inertia. Also included are the transition from group motion to element motion in response to a Ternus display as the interstimulus interval (ISI) decreases; group motion in response to a reverse-contrast Ternus display even at short ISIs; speed-up of motion velocity as interflash distance increases or flash duration decreases; dependence of the transition from element motion to group motion on stimulus duration and size, various classical dependencies between flash duration, spatial separation, ISI, and motion threshold known as Korte's laws; dependence of motion strength on stimulus orientation and spatial frequency; short-range and long-range form-color interactions; and binocular interactions of flashes to different eyes.

Attention↗

PubMed2001

Quantitative assessment of motion artifacts and validation of a new motion-correction program for myocardial perfusion SPECT.

UNLABELLED: Patient motion during myocardial perfusion SPECT can produce images that show artifactual perfusion defects. The relationship between the degree of motion and the extent of artifactual perfusion defects is not clear for either single- or double-head detectors. Using both single- and double-head detectors and quantitative perfusion SPECT (QPS) software, we studied the pattern and extent of defects induced by simulated motion and validated a new automatic motion-correction program for myocardial perfusion SPECT. METHODS: Vertical motion was simulated by upward shifting of the raw projection datasets in a returning pattern (bounce) and in a nonreturning pattern at 3 different phases of the SPECT acquisition (early, middle, and late), whereas upward creep was simulated by uniform shifting throughout the acquisition. Lateral motion was similarly simulated by left shifting of the raw projection datasets in a returning pattern and in a nonreturning pattern. Simulations were performed using single- and double-head detectors, and simulated motion was applied to projection images from 8 patients who had normal 99mTc-sestamibi SPECT findings. Additionally, images from 130 patients with actual clinical motion were assessed before and after motion correction. The extent of perfusion defects was assessed by QPS, and a 20-segment, 5-point scoring system was used to assess the effect of motion on the presence and extent of perfusion defects. RESULTS: Of 12 bounce simulations, the bouncing motion failed to produce significant (>3%) perfusion defects with either the single- or the double-head detector. With the single-head detector, early shifting created the largest defect, whereas with the double-head detector, shifting during the middle of the acquisition created the largest defect. With regard to upward creep, defects were of larger extent with the double- than the single-head detector. With the single-head detector, 8 of 20 simulated motion patterns yielded significant perfusion defects of the left ventricle, 7 (88%) of which were significantly improved after motion correction. With the double-head detector, 12 of 20 patterns yielded significant defects, all of which improved significantly after correction. Of 2,600 segments in the 130 patients with actual clinical motion, only 1.3% (30/2,259) of segments that were considered normal (score = 0 or 1) changed to abnormal (score = 2-4) after motion correction, whereas 27% (92/341) of abnormal segments were reclassified as normal after motion correction. CONCLUSION: Artifactual perfusion defects created by simulated motion are a function of the time, degree, and type of motion and the number of camera detectors. Application of an automatic motion-correction algorithm effectively decreases motion artifacts on myocardial perfusion SPECT images.

Aged↗

PubMed1998

Human cerebral activity evoked by motion reversal and motion onset. A PET study.

In this PET study, we have investigated the human brain activity evoked by a visual motion paradigm commonly used to measure motion-related visual evoked potentials (VEPs). Because standard PET activation studies have been performed with motion along four axes, we first determined the pattern of brain activation when motion was restricted to a single axis. Motion back and forward along a single horizontal axis compared with a static condition revealed weak differential activations in the cuneus and the parietal cortex. Human area MT/V5 (middle temporal area) was hardly activated at all in this subtraction. Additional functional MRI experiments proved that MT/V5 activity is significantly higher for motion along four axes than for motion along a single axis. Secondly, we attempted to isolate the pattern of brain activity related to the reversal of motion direction and to the onset of motion, i.e. two transient motion components commonly used in measuring motion-related VEPs. To that end, we added a continuous linear contrast modulation, that reached maximum contrast at reversal or onset of motion, and compared both conditions with a contrast-modulated static or continuous motion condition. Subtraction of the static random dot pattern condition from the single-axis motion reversal condition, both contrast-modulated, revealed three significant activations: the anterior parieto-occipital sulcus, the lateral sulcus and the anterior claustrum. Additional analysis showed that these activations were not due to motion appearance or disappearance, but were due to the combination of motion reversal and contrast modulation. Hence, these activations do not reflect the motion reversal transient per se. In order to isolate a metabolic response to the reversal transient per se, we used a conjunction analysis, which suggests that activity in human MT/V5, the cuneus and a parietal insular region could underlie the motion reversal VEP in our experiments. Subtraction of the static random dot pattern condition from the single-axis motion onset condition, both contrast-modulated, revealed a single significant activation in the posterior cingulate cortex. Although the significance of this activation is unclear, it adds further evidence for the visual function of this region.

Adult↗

PubMed1986

The responsiveness of Clare-Bishop neurons to motion cues for motion stereopsis.

Under paralysis of eye movement and optical adjustment of visual axes of the two eyes, neuronal responsiveness in cat Clare-Bishop (CB) cortex to the binocular presentation of visual stimuli was studied using two types of visual stimulator which presented: 3-dimensional motion of a visual stimulus; and the motion cues (movement of retinal images in the two eyes) contained in the 3-dimensional motion. On the basis of the responsiveness to 3-dimensional motion presented by the first type of stimulator, the CB cells were classified into approaching (AP) cells which were selectively responsive to the approaching motion of a visual stimulus, recessive (RC) cells responsive to the recessive motion, frontoparallel (FP) cells responsive to the frontoparallel motion and non-selective (NS) cells responsive to more than two types of motion. The investigation of the CB cells with 2-dimensional motion stimulus demonstrated 3 different types of binocular interaction: facilitatory (52/239); antagonistic (33/239) or linear summation (154/239). Cells exhibiting the facilitatory interaction (n = 52) were all FP cells, those exhibiting the antagonistic interaction were either AP (n = 25) or RC cells (n = 8), and those exhibiting the linear summation were comprised of all varieties of cells (49 AP, 17 RC, 31 FP and 57 NS cells). The cells responsive to the approaching (37 AP cells) or recessive motion between the center of the receptive area and the nose (10 RC cells), or frontoparallel motion (42 FP cells) in the horizontal direction exhibited the selective responsiveness to the motion disparity (a combination of horizontal movement of retinal images in the two eyes), and those responsive to the vertically or obliquely deviating approaching (20 AP cells) or recessive motion (14 RC cells), or frontoparallel motion in the vertical or oblique directions (13 FP cells) exhibited that for a combination of the motion disparity and the frontoparallel motion in the vertical or oblique direction. These findings indicate that the CB cell responsiveness to 3-dimensional motion of a visual stimulus is explained by the binocular integration of motion signal viewed by each eye.

Action Potentials↗