[Mummies: the living dead. 1: squatting mummies--bundled mummies].
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Archaeology↗
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Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era. Comparison with balms from mummies of different eras.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been used to determine the nature of organic materials used in mummification balms. A comparative analysis of samples taken from Egyptian mummies is developed. The results are given in two parts. First, it is shown that the chemical composition of the balm is practically independent of the part of the mummy from which it is taken. This study was done on a Ptolemaic mummy (circa 100 BC from the Guimet Museum in Lyon). Fats, beeswax, and diterpenic resins were the main components: they were found everywhere. Castor oil was also very often detected (in half of the samples). This particular fat is present in the balm inside the thorax but not in the skull. Moreover it is shown that a vegetable tannin was employed. Components indicative of vegetable tannin input (gallic acid and inositols) were found in seven samples out of eighteen, particularly close to the body and on the canopic pack of the heart. Secondly, some conclusions from a comparative study of the composition of balms from mummies of various social levels as well as of different Egyptian periods are reported. It is shown that beeswax was used as from very early times (XVIIIth dynasty). The mixture of beeswax, fats, and diterpenoid resins would appear to be more recent. The balms of three mummies dating from more recent Egyptian periods (XIXth to XXVth dynasty) were analysed. No evidence of a resin, gum-resin, or plant gum could be found. Some mummies would appear to have been embalmed with fats or beeswax. Finally, the entrails canopic pack said to belong to Ramses II undoubtedly shows an embalming process with a triterpenic resin of the mastic type. The adopted analytical methodology enabled us to achieve simultaneous detection of four components of the balm of the Ptolemaic mummy. Analysis of the other five mummies revealed far less complex chemical compositions for the balms. This may be an indication of different embalming processes, although we should bear in mind the question of organic matter preservation through the ages.
Castor Oil↗
Paleo-images of mummy A4, the infant mummy, and other bodies from the Basilica of St. Francesco in Arezzo.
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History, 17th Century↗
Paleoradiology in mummy studies: the Sulman mummy project.
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Egypt, Ancient↗
The mummy from mummy cave: preliminary reports.
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History of Medicine↗
[Buddhist mummies in Japan].
The mummy of priest Kochi (preserved at Saishoji Temple, Teradomari, Niigata Pref.) has become famous, since it appeared in the book "Snow Country Tales" written by Bokushi Suzuki in 1841 (Fig. 1). In a country of high humidity, such as Japan, the belief that mummification could not, and did not, exist would not be altogether unfounded, but rather more a matter of common sense. There are two dozen Buddhist mummies in this country. It was not known until 1961 that a reliable source of artificial mummification has existed in Japan. The Japanese Buddhist mummies, apart from those of the Fujiwara family, a powerful clan of northeast Japan in the 12th century, dated mostly from the 17th to the 19th century as given in Table 1. Three principal types of mummification described by Vreeland, Jr. and Cockburn (1980) could be identified in the Japanese Buddhist mummies: type I, natural mummification; type II, intentional natural; and type III, artificial. Matsumoto (1990) classified the mummies into four groups, based on their ideological backgrounds: group A, mummies of the priests having faith in the Amitabha (the Supreme Buddha presiding over the Pure Land in the West); group B, sokushin-butsu mummies of the priests belonging to the Shingon sect of Japanese Buddhism founded by Kukai (Kobo-daishi); group C, nyujo mummies of the priests having faith in the Maitreya (the Buddha presiding over the Pure Land in the North, or the Buddha of the future); and group D, other mummies. These mummies of groups A, B, C and D are respectively listed in Table 2. Previous papers have shown that the mummies of the groups A, C and D belonged to the mummification of type I (natural mummification) or type II (intentional natural), whereas those of only the group B were of type III (artificial). The mummies of groups A to D were given as follows. a) Mummies of group A. The four mummies of the Fujiwara family in the Amitabha faith (preserved at Chusonji Temple, Hiraizumi, Iwate Pref.), which were laid in daisies for Buddhist images at golden Konjikido, a model of the Western Pure Land of Amitabha, did not bear any evidence of Ainu character in their physical traits. Of these, the mummy of Yasuhira Fujiwara, of which the head and neck were severely injured by swords, showed that it had been decapitated. This decapitated head had suffered mutilations: i.e. a long iron nail had been driven into the forehead, and the both auricles and the nose had been cut off.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Buddhism↗
Head and skull base features of nine Egyptian mummies: evaluation with high-resolution CT and reformation techniques.
OBJECTIVE: CT is an indispensable imaging tool in the evaluation of Egyptian mummies because it can noninvasively generate large amounts of data. We applied current CT imaging and postprocessing techniques to methodically survey the head and skull base features of nine Egyptian mummies in the hope of providing paleopathologic and radiologic information. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nine Egyptian mummies were evaluated on helical CT using 1-mm axial scans obtained from the skull vertex to the mid cervical spine. Systematic evaluation of the skull and intracranial contents, paranasal sinuses, craniocervical junction, orbits, temporal bones including the middle and inner ears, teeth, and superficial soft tissues was undertaken. Reformatted and volume-rendered images were generated. RESULTS: CT findings indicated that the intracranial contents of the nine mummies varied tremendously. Destruction of the anterior skull base structures in mummies without intracranial contents suggested a transnasal, transethmoidal approach to excerebration. A large amount of expensive embalming material within the skull of one mummy suggests that he may have been a royal pharoah. A cleft palate deformity was identified in a child mummy. Temporal bone analysis revealed one case of asymmetric mastoid air cell erosion and dehiscence, which is strongly suggestive of prior mastoiditis. Craniocervical junction abnormalities and ossicular chain disruption in several mummies were attributed to postmortem damage. The orbital structures had intentionally been removed in several mummies. Dental disease was ubiquitous among the adult specimens. CONCLUSION. The systematic evaluation of the head and skull base of mummies with CT can provide insight into the life, disease, death, and postmortem treatment of these ancient Egyptians.
Adolescent↗
Sex determination by polymerase chain reaction on mummies discovered at Taklamakan desert in 1912.
Sex determination was performed by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on eight adult mummies and one child mummy which were discovered at Taklamakan desert in 1912 and now belong to the Lüshun Museum in China. Archaeologically, these mummies were humans living in the seventh century, that is, more than 1300 years ago. Putative sex determination was performed based on external morphology for six of the eight adults, but it was impossible for the other two adults and one child mummy due to marked destruction on the external morphology. Hair, muscle and skin samples were then collected from each adult mummy, and skin and rib samples from the child mummy. Forty PCR cycles were performed as follows: denaturation at 94 degrees C for 40 s, annealing at 55 degrees C for 30 s and extension at 72 degrees C for 1 min. The primer and PCR reaction mixture were prepared according to the report by Witt and Erickson (M. Witt and R. P. Erikson, A rapid method for detection of Y-chromosomal DNA from dried blood specimens by the polymerase chain reaction. Hum. Genet., 82 (1989) 271-274)). Two different pairs of primer were used. One was X1, X2 (X1: 5'-AATCATCAAATGGAGATTTG-3'; X2: 5'-GTTCAGCTCTGTGAGTGAAA-3') to flanking the 170 bp fragment of the alphoid repeats on the human X chromosome, and the other was Y11, Y22 (Y11: 5'-ATGATAGAAACGGAAATATG-3'; Y22: 5'-AGTAGAATGCAAAGGGCTC-3') to flanking the 130 bp fragment of the alphoid repeats on the human Y chromosome. Extracted DNA solutions from mummy samples was purified using a spin column (T. Yoshii, K. Tamura, T. Taniguchi, K. Akiyama and I. Ishiyama, Water-soluble eumelanin as a PCR-inhibitor and a simple method for its removal. Jpn. J. Legal Med., 47 (1993) 323-329 (in Japanese with English abstract) for removing PCR-inhibitors, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was employed to inhibit the remaining impurities even after the purification with the column. In six adult cases where the putative sex was determined from external morphology, the sex in five cases was consistent with that by PCR using hair, muscle, and skin samples, but the other one was inconsistent. In two adult cases where sex estimation was externally impossible, the sex was determined to be male because both X-specific and Y-specific bands were clearly detected. The child mummy was definitely male. This study shows that the sex determination was possible by the PCR method even with very ancient human samples > 1300 years old, that spin column was useful for removing impurities in the DNA solution from ancient human samples and that the BSA of optimum concentration suppressed the action of the PCR-inhibitory factors.
Adult↗
Endoscopic investigation of the internal organs of a 15th-century child mummy from Yangju, Korea.
Our previous reports on medieval mummies in Korea have provided information on their preservation status. Because invasive techniques cannot easily be applied when investigating such mummies, the need for non-invasive techniques incurring minimal damage has increased among researchers. Therefore, we wished to confirm whether endoscopy, which has been used in non-invasive and minimally invasive studies of mummies around the world, is an effective tool for study of Korean mummies as well. In conducting an endoscopic investigation on a 15th-century child mummy, we found that well-preserved internal organs remained within the thoracic, abdominal and cranial cavities. The internal organs - including the brain, spinal cord, lung, muscles, liver, heart, intestine, diaphragm and mesentery - were easily investigated by endoscopy. Even the stool of the mummy, which accidentally leaked into the abdominal cavity during an endoscopic biopsy, was clearly observed. In addition, unusual nodules were found on the surface of the intestines and liver. Our current study therefore showed that endoscopic observation could provide an invaluable tool for the palaeo-pathological study of Korean mummies. This technique will continue to be used in the study of medieval mummy cases in the future.
Burial↗
On the phylogenetic placement of human T cell leukemia virus type 1 sequences associated with an Andean mummy.
Recently, the putative finding of ancient human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) long terminal repeat (LTR) DNA sequences in association with a 1500-year-old Chilean mummy has stirred vigorous debate. The debate is based partly on the inherent uncertainties associated with phylogenetic reconstruction when only short sequences of closely related genotypes are available. However, a full analysis of what phylogenetic information is present in the mummy data has not previously been published, leaving open the question of what precisely is the range of admissible interpretation. To fulfill this need, we re-analyzed the mummy data in a new way. We first performed phylogenetic analysis of 188 published LTR DNA sequences from extant strains belonging to the HTLV-1 Cosmopolitan clade, using the method of statistical parsimony which is designed both to optimize phylogenetic resolution among sequences with little evolutionary divergence, and to permit precise mapping of individual sequence mutations onto branches of a divergence network. We then deduced possible phylogenetic positions for the two main categories of published Chilean mummy sequences, based on their published 157-nucleotide LTR sequences. The possible phylogenetic placements for one of the mummy sequence categories are consistent with a modern origin. However, one of these placements for the other mummy sequence category falls very close to the root of the Cosmopolitan clade, consistent with an ancient origin for both this mummy sequence and the Cosmopolitan clade.
Asian People↗
[Preservation of cutaneous structures of egyptian mummies. An ultrastructural study].
INTRODUCTION: The recent development of studies applied to ancient materials may be explained by the application of molecular biology techniques on the extracted ancient DNA mainly the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the ultrasensitive DNA-amplification technique that hit the headlines in the late 1980s. PCR was used to amplify human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), genetic material in stored tissue specimens and to document people who died in 1976. In addition, recent discoveries of mummified bodies in ice of the Tyrolean Alps or Greenland allowed a new approach in archeological studies. Mummies are a good material for investigations of ancient tissues. The studies concern the techniques of embalming, tissue preservation and palepathological aspects. In cutaneous paleopathology, mummies from Egypt, South or North America and Europe were considered. Various skin lesions were characterized: histiocytoma, Chagas' disease, smallpox, syphilis. Recently drugs (cocaine, hashish and nicotine) were extracted from skin and head hair of Egyptian mummies. Only a few studies were concerned with the ultrastructure of the skin of such mummies. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We had the opportunity to obtain skin samples of two Egyptian mummies. One of them was embalmed between 150 BC-90 AC. The skin was studied by transmission electron microscopy. As the mummified materials had dried out and shrunk, it was necessary to rehydrate them for ultrastructural observation. Skin samples were fragmented into small pieces before fixation with 2 p. 100 glutaraldehyde in sodium cacodylate buffer for 10 days (allowing for removal of the materials used for embalming). The samples were then washed in the same buffer for 10 days. After washing the pieces were post-fixed with 1 p. 100 osmium tetroxyde, dehydrated and embedded in Epoxy medium. RESULTS: With this process, it was possible to observe the excellent preservation of the cutaneous structures. The epidermis was well preserved. It was possible to observe the different cell layers and mainly the upper layers. The nuclei and the desmosomes of keratinocytes were recognized. Intercellular spaces were narrow. Desmosomes showed dense thickenings of the cell membrane on both sides and an intercellular band with narrow lucent spaces adjacent to the dense cell membrane. The nuclei showed dense spots of chromatin and in the cytoplasm recognizable tonofilament bundles were identified. Langerhans cells and melanocytes were not observed. In the dermis, the collagen fibrils formed thick bundles and showed the characteristic axial periodicity. Elastic fibers were also recognized showing two main components: the amorphous substance and the fibrils. Throughout the dermis, a number of round or oval structures were found. They had the typical appearance of spores of bacteria. In the centre, they had an electron dense and granular core surrounded by an inner membrane and a spore coat. DISCUSSION: Only a few investigations were performed on the ultrastructure of the skin of the Egyptian mummies. In the majority of cases, the epidermis was not preserved. The present work demonstrates the good preservation of epidermal structures and specially desmosomes and intercellular connections. The presence of spores of bacteria was previously reported. These spores enter a highly resistant resting phase in order to survive in a dormant state for a long period of starvation or other adverse environmental conditions. Similar investigations were performed on skin obtained from Eskimo mummies preserved by the extremely cold and dry polar weather. In these conditions, the authors reported the observation of melanocytes, vessels and nerves. Additionally, biochemical investigations demonstrated the very good preservation of collagen and glycosaminoglycans of the dermal extracellular matrix.
Collagen↗
Consequences of acclimation on survival and reproductive capacities of cold-stored mummies of Aphidius rhopalosiphi (Hymenoptera: Aphidiinae).
The cold storage of parasitoid mummies is a crucial point during mass production of parasitoids for aphid control in wheat, Triticum spp. In this study, the effect of acclimation to cold before storage of mummies containing Aphidius rhopalosiphi DeStefani-Peres (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) was evaluated on survival, sterility, and fecundity of parasitoids. Groups of 1-d-old and 3-d-old mummies were stored at -5 degrees C for 10 d without acclimation or after one of five different acclimation treatments. One-day-old and 3-d-old mummies contain prepupa and postmetamorphosis but not yet sclerotinized adult parasitoids, respectively. The offspring and sex ratio of stored parasitoids were compared with a control that was left at rearing temperatures (20 degrees C). Without acclimation, two-thirds of the parasitoids died during storage, for both ages of mummies tested. For stored 1-d-old mummies, subsequent survival increased under progressive exposure to low temperatures and reached 67.3% after 480 min of acclimation. In the same way, percentage of male sterility decreased with acclimation duration, whereas female fecundity increased. For stored 3-d-old mummies, subsequent survival improved with the duration of the acclimation treatment, but not male sterility and female fecundity.
Acclimatization↗
Studies of organic residues from ancient Egyptian mummies using high temperature-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and sequential thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
The techniques of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and sequential thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) have been utilised to characterise the constituents of tissue-derived or applied organic material from two Pharaonic Egyptian mummies with a view to identifying embalming practices/substances. The results obtained using TD-GC-MS revealed a series of monocarboxylic acids with the C16:0, C18:1 and C18:0 components dominating in both mummies. The thermal desorption products related to cholesterol, i.e., cholesta-3,5,7-triene and cholesta-3,5-diene (only in Khnum Nakht), were detected in both mummies. Khnum Nakht also contained a number of straight chain alkyl amides (C16-C18) and an alkyl nitrile (C18). Other products included the 2,5-diketopiperazine derivative (DKP) of proline-glycine (pro-gly) which was a major component (7.9%) in Khnum Nakht but only a very minor component in Horemkenesi. Py-GC-MS of samples of both specimens yielded a series of alkene/alkane doublets (Horemkenesi C6-C18, Khnum Nakht C6-C24) which dominated their chromatograms. Series of methyl ketones in the C9-C19 chain length range were also present, with C5-C7 cyclic ketones occurring in Horemkenesi only. These ketones are indicative of covalent bond cleavage, probably of polymerised acyl lipids. Nitrogenous products included nitriles (C9-C18) which were significant in both samples, and amides which were only detected in Khnum Nakht. Also present amongst the pyrolysis products were three steroidal hydrocarbons, cholest-(?)-ene, cholesta-3,5,7-triene and cholesta-3,5-diene. High temperature-GC-MS of trimethylsilylated lipid extracts yielded similar monocarboxylic acids to that obtained using TD-GC-MS, while a series of alpha, omega-dicarboxylic acids and a number of mono- and di-hydroxy carboxylic acids not seen in the thermal desorption or pyrolysis GC-MS analyses were significant constituents in both mummy samples. Overall, the use of GC-MS and sequential TD-GC-MS and Py-GC-MS has demonstrated in both mummies the presence of a complex suite of lipids and proteinaceous components whose compositions indicates extensive alteration via oxidative and hydrolytic processes during long-term interment. None of the classical embalming resins was detected but an exogenous origin for at least a proportion of these components cannot be discounted since fats, oils and gelatin have been proposed as embalming agents in mummification. The combined approach of sequential TD- and Py-GC-MS has potential for application to the characterisation of embalming materials in mummies. Most importantly these techniques virtually eliminate any destruction of the mummified bodies thereby allowing the scope of investigations of ancient Egyptian funerary practices to be significantly extended.
Embalming↗
Preserved skin structure of a recently found fifteenth-century mummy in Daejeon, Korea.
Recently published reports on Korea's medieval mummies have been regarded as an invaluable source for studies into the physical characteristics of medieval Koreans. However, even though the mummified tissues have been investigated histologically on various previous occasions, there are many unanswered questions relating to their tissue preservation. The aim of this study was to obtain new data on the ultramicroscopic characteristics of the mummified skin of a fifteenth-century mummy found recently in Daejeon--one of the oldest ever found in Korea. Electron microscopy revealed that much of the epidermis had decayed; what remained of the dermis was filled with collagen fibres and melanin granules or invading bacterial spores present within the mummified epidermis. Considering the histological characteristics shared by naturally formed mummies in different parts of the world, we concluded that the ultramicroscopic patterns of the Daejeon mummy were more comparable with those naturally formed mummies than with artificially formed ones. This is the first full description of the morphological characteristics of the skin collected from this recently found medieval mummy from Daejeon, South Korea.
Burial↗
Diagnosing ancient diphyllobothriasis from Chinchorro mummies.
Diphyllobothrium pacificum has been reported as a human parasite from coprolites and skeletons in Peru and Chile. Our analysis of Chinchorro mummies from Chile provides the oldest evidence of D. pacificum directly associated with human mummies. These mummies date between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. The basis for our diagnosis is presented. We find that the size of the eggs in the mummies is smaller than other discoveries of D. pacificum. We suggest that this is due to the peculiar circumstances of preservation of parasite eggs within mummies and the release of immature eggs into the intestinal tract as the tapeworms decompose after the death of the host. This information is important to consider when making diagnoses from mummies.
Animals↗
Radiologic evaluation of the Llullaillaco mummies.
OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to determine the imaging findings in three 500-year-old frozen mummies of sacrificial Inca children. MATERIALS AND METHODS: CT, conventional radiography, and dental radiography of Inca mummies were reviewed. Different techniques, which were adjusted to the anatomic position of the bodies, were used for radiologic analyses. Working sessions were limited to 20 min because of the fragility of these mummies and to prevent thawing of the specimens. RESULTS: Internal organs in good condition with a natural shrinkage caused by dehydration were shown on CT scans. Both white and gray matter were clearly observed in the brain and cerebellum. The white matter and the fatty tissue of the bodies were visibly white. This condition was possibly caused by the transformation of the fatty tissue into a waxlike substance and the deposition of calcium salts. The lungs were expanded in all three mummies. The ages of the three children at the time of their deaths were estimated by means of radiographs of the teeth and long bones. Bone mineralization, the muscular volume, and the thickness of the adipose panniculus indicated the good nutritional state of the three Inca children. The spleen was not visualized in any case. CONCLUSION: Radiology helped us determine the state of the internal organs, the nutritional conditions, and the physical abnormalities of the naturally mummified children. These mummies can be considered among the best preserved mummies currently known.
Adolescent↗
Are mummy characteristics reliable indicators of diapause and cold tolerance in the parasitoid wasp Aphidius rhopalosiphi (Braconidae, aphidiinae) ?
Many insect species have evolved different overwintering survival strategies such as cold tolerance or diapause. This study investigated the relationship between Aphidius rhopalosiphi mummy colour and cold tolerance and diapause. Mummy colour was insufficient to discriminate diapausing from non-diapausing individuals. This phenotypic character seems to reflect environmental conditions rather than direct developmental time and cocoon thickness (identification criteria of diapause). There is, however, a relationship between cold tolerance and mummy colour. Dark mummies exhibited significantly higher water content, survival at low temperature and lower supercooling point values than pale mummies. Mummy colour in Aphidius rhopalosiphi seems to be a phenotypic indicator of the cold tolerance.
Adaptation, Physiological↗
[Macroscopic and endoscopic examinations of the head and neck region in ancient Egyptian mummies].
INTRODUCTION: The examination of mummies has mostly been performed by macroscopic investigation after unwrapping. During the last decades, however, several research groups provided clear evidence that the combination of various noninvasive approaches for the examination of mummies offers distinct advantages over the previously used methods of unwrapping and inspection. Particularly, the introduction of endoscopic techniques has been used for a closer examination of mummies without destroying them. METHODS: In the last 5 years we analysed about 250 mummies and skeletons found in the necropolis of Thebes-West, Upper Egypt, with particular reference to normal and pathological findings in the head and neck region. Beside macroscopic examination we used endoscopes for the inspection of the nasal cavity and the ear. RESULTS: Most individuals revealed normal macroscopic and endoscopic features. In particular, several skulls showed the auditory ossicles in normal anatomic position indicating an excellent conservation of the specimens. Nevertheless, pathological alterations could be detected affecting different regions of the head and neck. In particular, several individuals presented with fractures of the nasal bones. One case even revealed a severe old-healed fracture of the mid-face (type Le Fort III) with complete loss of all teeth, suggesting adequate "therapeutic" treatment of the skull fracture. Further findings, evidenced by endoscopy, were dentogenic sinusitis and chronic middle ear infections with intracranial perforation in one case. In addition, in one case fixation of the stapes suggests the residues of subluxation of the stapes. CONCLUSION: In this study, we provide further evidence that a careful macroscopic and endoscopic investigation of mummy skulls reveals important information on the state of conservation of the study population and may unravel distinct paleopathological diseases of the head and neck region.
Archaeology↗