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PubMed2026

Exploring the potential of RNA interference (RNAi) in mosquito control: from mechanisms to molecular insights.

Mosquito-borne diseases represent a growing global health crisis, exacerbated by climate change and insecticide resistance. RNA interference (RNAi), a natural mechanism of gene silencing, offers a promising, target-specific alternative for mosquito control. This review explores the potential of RNAi to disrupt critical physiological processes, such as reproduction and disease transmission, thereby reducing vector populations and competence. We examine the mechanisms of RNAi, its application in combatting insecticide resistance, and recent advancements in delivery systems, including nanobody- and chitosan-based nanoparticles, which enhance the stability and uptake of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules. However, significant challenges remain, such as optimizing field-effective delivery methods and assessing potential off-target effects on non-target organisms. Continued innovation in RNAi technology is pivotal for developing sustainable and environmentally sound vector control strategies. This review synthesizes current research, highlighting the molecular insights, practical applications, and future directions for integrating RNAi into modern public health initiatives.

RNA Interference↗

PubMed2026

Genomic profiling of digestion related enzymes in Anopheles aquasalis a major coastal neotropical malaria vector.

Digestive genes are fundamental for the development and survival of mosquitoes and can serve as a target for the development of strategies for mosquito control or vector-borne disease prevention. Genes related to digestion were identified in the genome of the neotropical malaria vector Anopheles aquasalis by similarity. We used reciprocal BLAST with annotated digestion proteins for Anopheles gambiae. Orthology and evolutionary analyses were performed using MEGA with a bootstrapped phylogenetic tree constructed by the neighbor-joining method, and copy number variation was measured by the standard deviation of the average copy number in each gene family. We identified 241 genes related to digestion in An. aquasalis: 56 genes related to carbohydrate digestion, 51 genes for lipid digestion, and 134 genes for protein digestion. Phylogenetic relationships with other anophelines show that An. aquasalis genes are closely related to those of neotropical mosquitoes Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles albimanus. Orthologous gene clusters are conserved in important families of all four species. Some of these conserved genes are of interest for studies on controlling mosquito vectors, such as larvicidal toxin receptor genes, alpha-amylase, alpha-glucosidase, and maltase; important target genes for transmission-blocking vaccines, such as aminopeptidase N1 and carboxypeptidase B; and the major intestinal serine proteases, such as trypsins and chymotrypsins, which can positively or negatively affect Plasmodium development in the midgut. These data provide a better understanding of digestion-related genes in American anopheline mosquitoes and may support further fundamental and applied studies aimed at malaria control.

Animals↗

PubMed2024

Mosquitoes provide a transmission route between possums and humans for Buruli ulcer in southeastern Australia.

Buruli ulcer, a chronic subcutaneous infection caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans, is increasing in prevalence in southeastern Australia. Possums are a local wildlife reservoir for M. ulcerans and, although mosquitoes have been implicated in transmission, it remains unclear how humans acquire infection. We conducted extensive field survey analyses of M. ulcerans prevalence among mosquitoes in the Mornington Peninsula region of southeastern Australia. PCR screening of trapped mosquitoes revealed a significant association between M. ulcerans and Aedes notoscriptus. Spatial scanning statistics revealed overlap between clusters of M. ulcerans-positive Ae. notoscriptus, M. ulcerans-positive possum excreta and Buruli ulcer cases, and metabarcoding analyses showed individual mosquitoes had fed on humans and possums. Bacterial genomic analysis confirmed shared single-nucleotide-polymorphism profiles for M. ulcerans detected in mosquitoes, possum excreta and humans. These findings indicate Ae. notoscriptus probably transmit M. ulcerans in southeastern Australia and highlight mosquito control as a Buruli ulcer prevention measure.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Autodissemination stations suppress Aedes notoscriptus mosquitoes and reduce Buruli ulcer risk in urban Australia: a randomized controlled field trial.

Aedes notoscriptus are mosquito vectors implicated in transmission of Mycobacterium ulcerans. This bacterium causes a destructive infection of skin and soft tissue called Buruli ulcer. Here we ran a randomized controlled trial in an urban Buruli ulcer endemic area in Melbourne, Australia to test whether autodissemination mosquito control stations, containing pyriproxyfen (larvicide) and Beauveria bassiana (entomopathogenic fungus), suppress Ae. notoscriptus populations. Six geographic areas each received 100 autodissemination stations for 8 weeks, and six control areas received no stations between 25 January 2024 and 21 March 2024. The primary outcome measure was mosquito population numbers. After the trial, there was a 70% average reduction in mosquito egg counts among the six intervention areas compared to control areas (P = 0.0076). In an ad hoc analysis, we then explored human Buruli ulcer notifications in treatment and control areas. After accounting for the 4.8-month mean incubation period, there was an 83% reduction in infection likelihood coinciding with peak intervention effect (intervention zones 1 case, control zones 6 cases, incidence ratio rate 0.167, 95% CI 0.0026-1.054, P = 0.047). The effect was not observed during the same time period in the year previous or following 2024, when no interventions were undertaken. A strong correlation (R2 = 0.85) was observed between decreased disease risk and mosquito suppression. These data show that autodissemination traps can effectively lower urban mosquito populations and reduce the threat of Buruli ulcer in humans.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Chlorfenapyr-pyrethroid nets for pyrethroid-resistant malaria vectors: efficacy, resistance risks, and policy implications.

The Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016-2030 aims to reduce malaria incidence and mortality by 90%, yet widespread pyrethroid resistance among major malaria vectors in sub-Saharan Africa threatens this goal. Thus, the World Health Organization recommends chlorfenapyr-pyrethroid combination nets as a priority intervention where pyrethroid resistance undermines vector control. This systematic review synthesizes evidence on the performance, emerging resistance risks, and policy implications of these next-generation insecticide-treated nets. A structured search of literature from 2010 to 2024 across PubMed, Embase, WHO IRIS, and Google Scholar identified 31 eligible studies from 113 records. Evidence shows that chlorfenapyr-pyrethroid nets consistently outperform pyrethroid-only nets against resistant Anopheles populations, demonstrating a 1.8-fold increase in mosquito mortality (95% CI: 1.5-2.1). Community trials report 40-60% reductions in malaria infection incidence and entomological inoculation rates following deployment. However, early signs of chlorfenapyr resistance have emerged in Anopheles gambiae populations in Central Africa (RR: 2.4, p = 0.01), linked to CYP6P4 metabolic overexpression. A significant correlation was also observed between agricultural pesticide use and vector resistance patterns (r = 0.62, p < 0.05). Although chlorfenapyr-pyrethroid nets provide an important short-term tool for managing pyrethroid resistance, their long-term effectiveness depends on integrated resistance management. Rotational deployment with other insecticide classes, strengthened genetic and phenotypic surveillance, and a coordinated 'One Health' approach involving both public health and agriculture are essential to sustain gains and advance progress toward the 2030 malaria targets.

Pyrethrins↗

PubMed2022

Expansive and Diverse Phenotypic Landscape of Field Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) Larvae with Differential Susceptibility to Temephos: Beyond Metabolic Detoxification.

Arboviruses including dengue, Zika, and chikungunya are amongst the most significant public health concerns worldwide. Arbovirus control relies on the use of insecticides to control the vector mosquito Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus), the success of which is threatened by widespread insecticide resistance. The work presented here profiled the gene expression of Ae. aegypti larvae from field populations of Ae. aegypti with differential susceptibility to temephos originating from two Colombian urban locations, Bello and Cúcuta, previously reported to have distinctive disease incidence, socioeconomics, and climate. We demonstrated that an exclusive field-to-lab (Ae. aegypti strain New Orleans) comparison generates an over estimation of differential gene expression (DGE) and that the inclusion of a geographically relevant field control yields a more discrete, and likely, more specific set of genes. The composition of the obtained DGE profiles is varied, with commonly reported resistance associated genes including detoxifying enzymes having only a small representation. We identify cuticle biosynthesis, ion exchange homeostasis, an extensive number of long noncoding RNAs, and chromatin modelling among the differentially expressed genes in field resistant Ae. aegypti larvae. It was also shown that temephos resistant larvae undertake further gene expression responses when temporarily exposed to temephos. The results from the sampling triangulation approach here contribute a discrete DGE profiling with reduced noise that permitted the observation of a greater gene diversity, increasing the number of potential targets for the control of insecticide resistant mosquitoes and widening our knowledge base on the complex phenotypic network of the Ae. aegypti response to insecticides.

Aedes↗

PubMed2024

Combination of computational techniques and RNAi reveal targets in Anopheles gambiae for malaria vector control.

Increasing reports of insecticide resistance continue to hamper the gains of vector control strategies in curbing malaria transmission. This makes identifying new insecticide targets or alternative vector control strategies necessary. CLassifier of Essentiality AcRoss EukaRyote (CLEARER), a leave-one-organism-out cross-validation machine learning classifier for essential genes, was used to predict essential genes in Anopheles gambiae and selected predicted genes experimentally validated. The CLEARER algorithm was trained on six model organisms: Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and employed to identify essential genes in An. gambiae. Of the 10,426 genes in An. gambiae, 1,946 genes (18.7%) were predicted to be Cellular Essential Genes (CEGs), 1716 (16.5%) to be Organism Essential Genes (OEGs), and 852 genes (8.2%) to be essential as both OEGs and CEGs. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to validate the top three highly expressed non-ribosomal predictions as probable vector control targets, by determining the effect of these genes on the survival of An. gambiae G3 mosquitoes. In addition, the effect of knockdown of arginase (AGAP008783) on Plasmodium berghei infection in mosquitoes was evaluated, an enzyme we computationally inferred earlier to be essential based on chokepoint analysis. Arginase and the top three genes, AGAP007406 (Elongation factor 1-alpha, Elf1), AGAP002076 (Heat shock 70kDa protein 1/8, HSP), AGAP009441 (Elongation factor 2, Elf2), had knockdown efficiencies of 91%, 75%, 63%, and 61%, respectively. While knockdown of HSP or Elf2 significantly reduced longevity of the mosquitoes (p<0.0001) compared to control groups, Elf1 or arginase knockdown had no effect on survival. However, arginase knockdown significantly reduced P. berghei oocytes counts in the midgut of mosquitoes when compared to LacZ-injected controls. The study reveals HSP and Elf2 as important contributors to mosquito survival and arginase as important for parasite development, hence placing them as possible targets for vector control.

Animals↗

PubMed2025

Influence of genetic factors of humans, mosquitoes and parasites, on the evolution of Plasmodium falciparum infections, malaria transmission and genetic control methods: a review of the literature.

Despite significant progress, malaria remains a public health problem in many regions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This situation is partly explained by the mosquito's resistance to insecticides and the emergence of parasite resistance to antimalarial drugs. Indeed, in spite of the various vectors' controls, insecticide resistance emerges from multi-generational selection and poses worldwide concern. In parallel, artemisinin resistance unfortunately emerged independently in multiple countries in eastern Africa. Since 2014, artemisinin resistance has been observed in 6 countries in Africa and, more concerningly, the evidence from longitudinal molecular surveys in these countries suggests that it is spreading. While phenotypic evidence of treatment failure is still limited, the increasing reports of validated artemisinin resistance mutations are alarming. Unlike the emergence of artemisinin resistance in South-East Asia, our understanding of the genetic determinants of artemisinin resistance and our ability to sequence and map the spread of resistance are significantly greater. In addition to mosquito and parasite genetics affecting malaria evolution, many human individual variants have been identified that are associated with malaria protection, but the most important of all relates to the structure or function of red blood cells, the classical polymorphisms that causes sickle cell trait, α-thalassaemia, G6PD deficiency, and the major red cell blood group variants. In that biological complex context, there is a need to characterize the various genetic factors in Plasmodium falciparum, humans and mosquitoes that are potentially associated with resistance to antimalarial drugs and insecticides, and their involvement in the evolution, severity and transmission of malaria. In this direction, A comprehensive literature review was conducted to capture the objectives highlighted above. The advances in genomic surveillance and emerging genetic control strategies, such as gene drive technology were also considered in this review. We used search engines such as PubMed and Google scholar to retrieve articles useful to the objective of this paper and information on the knowledge of genetic factors and methods that contributed to malaria control were synthesized.

Humans↗

PubMed2026

Rasputin/G3BP mediates subversion of antiviral immunity by o'nyong-nyong virus in Anopheles coluzzii.

Cellular G3BP proteins are essential for alphavirus infection in both vertebrate and mosquito hosts, but the underlying mechanism of their proviral activity is poorly understood in any host. Whether the mosquito G3BP ortholog, Rasputin (Rin), interacts with host immunity to influence alphavirus infection has not been investigated, and anopheline mosquito interactions with arboviruses have been little studied. Here, we find that Rin silencing in Anopheles mosquitoes results in decreased ONNV infection levels, indicating a proviral activity for Anopheles Rin. We find that Rin function is required to maintain basal activity of the antiviral Imd and JAK/STAT pathways in uninfected mosquitoes. However, during ONNV infection, the control of the Imd pathway by Rin activity appears corrupted because Rin silencing leads to overexpression of the Imd positive regulator, Rel2. Thus, silencing of Rin both augments Rel2 transcript abundance and decreases ONNV load. Co-silencing of Rel2 with Rin restores normal ONNV infection levels, indicating that Rin activity is required to inhibit Imd function during ONNV infection, and which explains most of the Rin proviral phenotype. In addition, we show that the ONNV non-structural protein 3 (nsP3), which binds to Rin, strongly alters the pattern of Anopheles cellular protein partners interacting with Rin. In the presence of ONNV nsP3, 48 Rin-binding host proteins are unchanged but seven binding proteins are excluded and eight new cellular proteins bind Rin. The altered cellular protein partners are candidate host factors involved in viral subversion of Rin control over Imd activity. Overall, these results reveal a molecular mechanism in which ONNV, probably through nsP3, co-opts the normal Rin function for basal cellular immune activity by subverting the Imd antiviral pathway to promote infection. These results may be generalizable for Rin function during alphavirus infection of other mosquitoes, as well as for G3BP function in the mammalian host, and could offer a target for development of vector-based genetic control tools against arbovirus transmission.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Metaviromic profiling of mosquito excreta using superhydrophobic collection devices expands the known RNA virome of North America.

Nearly 30% of emerging infectious disease events worldwide are transmitted by arthropod vectors, and this proportion continues to rise. Rapid and accurate detection is critical for directing vector control interventions, thereby reducing the likelihood of widespread transmission. Surveillance of infected mosquitoes can provide an early warning of impending human infection; however, conventional virus testing relies on processing large pools of mosquitoes and requires labor-intensive pre-processing. During rapidly developing epidemic or panzootic events, these delays may limit the effectiveness of public health responses. Mosquito excreta has recently emerged as a promising alternative substrate for pathogen detection. Sugar-fed mosquitoes regularly excrete gut contents, offering a rich source of nucleic acids. In this study, we developed and applied custom superhydrophobic excreta-collection funnels that efficiently aggregate excreta produced by field-collected Culex mosquitoes into attached microcentrifuge tubes. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing of this material revealed a diverse RNA virome, including both globally distributed viruses and those reported here for the first time from the Americas. Beyond virus detection, additional analyses enabled confirmation of host mosquito species and identification of trypanosomatid parasites, demonstrating the broader utility of mosquito excreta for integrated surveillance. We anticipate that methods and devices of this type will become valuable components of vector surveillance programs, particularly in remote or resource-limited settings where repeated collections are challenging. Overall, our findings highlight the potential of excreta-based monitoring to improve early detection of emerging or unknown pathogens of One Health importance, refine our understanding of mosquito virome biogeography, and facilitate the discovery of previously undescribed viruses.IMPORTANCEMany infectious diseases that affect people and animals are spread by mosquitoes and other biting insects, and the number of these outbreaks is increasing. Detecting pathogens in mosquito populations early can provide a critical warning before human cases begin, allowing health officials to act quickly. However, traditional surveillance requires collecting and processing large numbers of mosquitoes, which can be slow and labor-intensive during fast-moving outbreaks. Here we demonstrate a simpler approach: testing mosquito waste. When mosquitoes feed on sugar, they excrete material that contains genetic traces of viruses and other organisms. Using specially designed collection devices and modern genetic sequencing, we show that mosquito excreta can reveal a wide range of viruses and parasites while also identifying the mosquito species present. This method could make disease surveillance faster and more practical in remote or resource-limited settings, improving our ability to detect emerging pathogens that threaten human, animal, and environmental health.

Animals↗

PubMed2025

Widespread release of translational repression across Plasmodium's host-to-vector transmission event.

Malaria parasites must respond quickly to environmental changes, including during their transmission between mammalian and mosquito hosts. Therefore, female gametocytes proactively produce and translationally repress mRNAs that encode essential proteins that the zygote requires to establish a new infection. While the release of translational repression of individual mRNAs has been documented, the details of the global release of translational repression have not. Moreover, changes in the spatial arrangement and composition of the DOZI/CITH/ALBA complex that contribute to translational control are also not known. Therefore, we have conducted the first quantitative, comparative transcriptomics and DIA-MS proteomics of Plasmodium parasites across the host-to-vector transmission event to document the global release of translational repression. Using female gametocytes and zygotes of P. yoelii, we found that ~200 transcripts are released for translation soon after fertilization, including those encoding essential functions. Moreover, we identified that many transcripts remain repressed beyond this point. TurboID-based proximity proteomics of the DOZI/CITH/ALBA regulatory complex revealed substantial spatial and/or compositional changes across this transmission event, which are consistent with recent, paradigm-shifting models of translational control. Together, these data provide a model for the essential translational control mechanisms that promote Plasmodium's efficient transmission from mammalian host to mosquito vector.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Fine-Scale Landscape Genomics Show Asymmetric Patterns of Gene Flow for the Invasive Mosquito Aedes albopictus.

Mosquito-borne viruses like dengue, Zika, and chikungunya pose increasing health risks in the United States due to the expanding range of Aedes albopictus, a highly invasive mosquito species that now has a global distribution. Aedes albopictus thrive in artificial containers associated with anthropogenic land use, allowing populations to reach high numbers in urban and suburban environments. While the global spread of Ae. albopictus has been well characterized, the effects of heterogeneous urban landscapes on dispersal and gene flow at fine spatial scales remain unclear. This study analyzed the genetic connectivity of Aedes albopictus populations collected in Wake County, North Carolina in 2018. We used single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) data from double-digest restriction-enzyme associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq) and examined genetic connectivity through principal component analysis (PCA) and genetic network analysis. We then evaluated migration and source-sink dynamics using a Bayesian approach for SNP data (BA3-SNP). We found little evidence of genetic clustering or isolated populations of Ae. albopictus in Wake County, suggesting high gene flow between sites. Migration analysis demonstrated asymmetric gene flow from rural to urban regions within Wake County, with greater gene flow occurring between and within urban regions. These findings suggest that the pattern of gene flow of Ae. albopictus populations within local metropolitan areas may involve urban city centers serving as genetic sinks and surrounding suburban and rural regions serving as sources. This study highlights how heterogeneous landscapes shape mosquito population connectivity and migration at fine spatial scales, which is critical for informing vector control and public health intervention strategies.

Aedes albopictus↗

PubMed2026

Comet assay analysis of multigenerational genomic instability (F0-F2) in Aedes aegypti exposed to gamma radiation in Sterile Insect Technique.

The use of irradiation in the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is a sustainable and environmentally friendly strategy for controlling Aedes aegypti populations by the release of sterile males. However, the potential toxic effects of radiation on mosquito genetic material, as well as the heritability of such damage, remain insufficiently understood. In this study, we evaluated gamma radiation-induced DNA damage (20, 30, 40, and 50 Gy) in male pupae (F0 generation) and assessed the persistence of these effects in subsequent generations (F1 and F2) using the comet assay in hemocytes. In the parental generation, a significant dose-response relationship was observed, with increasing radiation doses associated with higher damage index and damage frequency (p < 0.05). In the F1 generation, both larvae and adults exhibited significantly greater DNA damage than the control group, particularly at doses of 30 and 40 Gy, supporting the inheritance of radiation-induced genomic instability. In the F2 generation, genotoxic effects were attenuated, although residual damage remained detectable in adults, suggesting partial recovery of genomic stability, possibly influenced by DNA repair mechanisms and/or selective pressures. No viable offspring were obtained at 50 Gy, confirming the sterilizing efficacy of higher doses. Integration of comet assay results with micronucleus data and reproductive parameters reinforces the association between DNA damage, mutagenic effects, and reduced fertility. These findings indicate that radiation-induced genotoxic effects may persist beyond the irradiated generation but tend to decline across generations. Overall, this study provides insights into the balance between achieving sterility and preserving biological quality in SIT programs, contributing to optimizing radiation doses and enhancing the safety and efficacy of vector control strategies.

Comet assay↗

PubMed2026

The piRNA pathway mediates transcriptional silencing of LTR retrotransposons in ovaries and somatic tissues of Aedes mosquitoes.

The PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA) pathway preserves genomic integrity by suppressing transposable elements in animal germlines. Despite its well-established function in the animal germline, piRNAs and PIWI proteins are expressed in somatic tissues across arthropod species, and their functions outside the gonads remain poorly understood. Aedes albopictus mosquitoes express four PIWI genes, Piwi4, Piwi5, Piwi6, and Ago3, in both gonadal and somatic tissues. Here, we generated Piwi6 knockout (KO) Ae. albopictus cell lines and observed a substantial upregulation of long terminal repeat retrotransposons, including a full-length endogenous retrovirus that we named Aedes albopictus Endogenous Retrovirus-1 (AalERV1). Nascent RNA sequencing and Cleavage Under Targets and Tagmentation (CUT&Tag) analyses revealed that Piwi6 silences AalERV1 transcriptionally by guiding the deposition of the repressive H3K9me3 histone mark. Consistently, Piwi6 localized to both the cytoplasm and nucleus, with sequences in the intrinsically disordered region guiding nuclear translocation. Reintroduction of full-length GFP-Piwi6, but not a mutant GFP-Piwi6 defective in nuclear localization, rescued AalERV1 repression in Piwi6 KO cells. Importantly, Piwi6-mediated control of AalERV1 was recapitulated in vivo as Piwi6 knockdown increased AalERV1 expression in both ovaries and somatic tissues of Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. These results establish Aedes mosquitoes as a model to study nuclear PIWI functions and suggest that somatic piRNA-mediated transposon silencing is evolutionarily conserved across arthropod species.

Animals↗

PubMed2023

Evolution and assembly of Anopheles aquasalis's immune genes: primary malaria vector of coastal Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands.

Anophelines are vectors of malaria, the deadliest disease worldwide transmitted by mosquitoes. The availability of genomic data from various Anopheles species allowed evolutionary comparisons of the immune response genes in search of alternative vector control of the malarial parasites. Now, with the Anopheles aquasalis genome, it was possible to obtain more information about the evolution of the immune response genes. Anopheles aquasalis has 278 immune genes in 24 families or groups. Comparatively, the American anophelines possess fewer genes than Anopheles gambiae s. s., the most dangerous African vector. The most remarkable differences were found in the pathogen recognition and modulation families like FREPs, CLIP and C-type lectins. Even so, genes related to the modulation of the expression of effectors in response to pathogens and gene families that control the production of reactive oxygen species were more conserved. Overall, the results show a variable pattern of evolution in the immune response genes in the anopheline species. Environmental factors, such as exposure to different pathogens and differences in the microbiota composition, could shape the expression of this group of genes. The results presented here will contribute to a better knowledge of the Neotropical vector and open opportunities for malaria control in the endemic-affected areas of the New World.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Autochthonous chikungunya virus (CHIKV) outbreak in the province of Modena, Emilia-Romagna region, Italy, August to October 2025: epidemiology, clinical features and virological findings.

Between 10 August and 31 October 2025, 343 cases (306 confirmed and 37 probable) of symptomatic autochthonous chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection were notified in eight municipalities in the province of Modena, Emilia-Romagna region, northern Italy. The infection was diagnosed by detection of CHIKV RNA in blood and urine samples, and by detection of IgM antibodies against CHIKV. Most common symptoms were arthralgia (n = 326) and fever (n = 317). No fatalities were reported. Chikungunya virus RNA was detected in 39 (14.8%) of 263 pools of Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, thereby confirming local vector-borne transmission. Sequences from 11 case samples and two mosquito pools were whole genome sequenced. The viral strain belonged to the East/Central/South African (ECSA) lineage 2 and was closely related to the strains circulating in Reunion Island in 2024-25. The public health response included rapid vector control measures, reinforced epidemiological surveillance and multidisciplinary coordination between public health authorities and clinicians, laboratories and entomologists. This was one of the largest autochthonous CHIKV outbreaks ever recorded in a temperate European region. It highlights the critical importance of integrated, multidisciplinary preparedness and response for arboviral threats in non-endemic areas.

Humans↗

PubMed2026

Influence of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Diversity on Immune Modulation, Pathogenesis, and Control of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus.

INTRODUCTION: Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV), a member of the genus Capripoxvirus within the family Poxviridae, is an economically important transboundary viral pathogen affecting cattle and water buffalo. The disease causes severe production losses through decreased milk yield, infertility, hide damage, reduced growth performance, and occasional mortality. The rapid geographic spread of LSDV, together with its vectorborne transmission and emerging recombinant strains, has intensified the need for improved understanding of viral pathogenesis, host immune responses, and effective prevention strategies. In particular, the role of the bovine Major Histocompatibility Complex (BoLA/MHC) in regulating antiviral immunity, disease susceptibility, and vaccine responsiveness has gained increasing scientific attention. METHODS: This review summarises the published literature related to the epidemiology, transmission, structure, pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevention, and control of LSDV, with special emphasis on the immunological and molecular role of bovine MHC molecules. Relevant studies concerning BoLA-mediated antigen presentation, immunoinformaticsbased epitope prediction, vaccine development, antiviral drug repurposing, molecular docking, genomic surveillance, and diagnostic approaches, including PCR- and ELISAbased assays, were critically evaluated. Recent advances in computational biology, molecular virology, and host-pathogen interaction studies were also reviewed. RESULTS: The reviewed studies demonstrate that Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV) possesses a complex double-stranded DNA genome enabling immune modulation and efficient transmission through arthropod vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and biting flies. Disease progression involves systemic viral replication, vascular injury, dermal necrosis, and inflammatory skin lesions. Real-time PCR remains the most sensitive diagnostic method for early detection, while ELISA supports surveillance. Evidence highlights the central role of bovine Major Histocompatibility Complex (BoLA) molecules in antigen presentation and T-cell activation. Computational studies identified promising BoLA-binding epitopes and repurposed antiviral candidates, including ivermectin, theaflavin, canagliflozin, and tepotinib, for future therapeutic development. DISCUSSION: Current evidence indicates that effective LSDV control requires integration of molecular diagnostics, vector management, vaccination, and host immunogenetics. BoLAguided immunoinformatics provides promising opportunities for developing multi-epitope vaccines, although experimental validation remains essential. Similarly, repurposed antiviral candidates require comprehensive in vivo and pharmacological evaluation before clinical application. Future research should focus on elucidating viral immune-evasion mechanisms, validating predicted epitopes, and translating computational findings into practical vaccines and therapeutics for sustainable disease control. CONCLUSION: Lumpy Skin Disease continues to pose a major threat to global cattle health and livestock economies. Advances in molecular diagnostics, genomic surveillance, antiviral drug discovery, and BoLA-guided vaccine design provide promising opportunities for improved disease control. Understanding the interaction between LSDV and the bovine MHC system is essential for developing next-generation vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and precision disease-management strategies. Future research should prioritise experimental validation of predicted epitopes, large-scale vaccine trials, and mechanistic studies on host-virus immune interactions to establish effective and sustainable global control programs for LSDV.

BoLA↗

PubMed2025

Population genomics of Aedes albopictus across remote Pacific islands for genetic biocontrol considerations.

Remote Pacific islands (RPI) are characterized by ecological isolation, diverse endemic species, and vulnerability to invasive organisms due to globalization-driven connectivity. Among these species, Aedes albopictus, a highly invasive vector of flaviviruses, has spread extensively across the RPI via human-mediated dispersal, posing significant health and economic burdens. While the population structure and the degree of gene flow between mosquito populations can inform the dispersal pathways critical for disease vector management, the population genetics of Ae. albopictus in Northern RPI remains understudied. The present work investigated the population structure and connectivity of Ae. albopictus populations from Guam, Hawaiian Islands, and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) to inform disease and vector-based biosecurity risks and develop targeted management strategies. This is the first assessment to develop and analyze whole genome sequences of Ae. albopictus for RPI, enabling more accurate estimates of differentiation, admixture, and ancestry. We found distinct genetic clustering between regions, distinct ancestry of populations across RPI, and potential invasions that originated from Hawaii and spread into the RMI, and invasions from North America that spread to Guam. These findings can inform biosecurity protocols to limit the invasion of Ae. albopictus and their associated diseases within Hawaii and around the Pacific. Given the significant degree of genetic differentiation, we found between islets, islands, and regions, the genome data from this study can be used to enable the development of locally confined geographically isolated gene drives. These drives may be used to prevent and control outbreaks of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika, diseases that have had devastating consequences in these remote island communities.

Animals↗