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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1999

Evaluating sex discrimination claims: the mediating role of attributions.

The role of attributions in judgments of sex discrimination was examined in 2 laboratory experiments. In Study 1, participants read 1 of 12 brief scenarios in which limited information about the strength of evidence against a fictitious corporation and occupational gender stereotype were manipulated. Results suggested that attributions mediated the relationships between participants' gender, strength of evidence, and discrimination judgments. In Study 2, participants were provided with 1 of 3 detailed, typewritten summaries of evidence presented in a sex discrimination trial. Results indicated that jurors' gender was again significantly related to attributions and to sex discrimination judgments even in the face of substantial objective information related to the case. The variance in observers' judgments associated with gender, however, appeared to be greatest when information about the organization's guilt or innocence was equivocal.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Relation between the changes of oncogene versus tumor suppressor gene interaction and the transition of cancer risk from female dominance through no sex discrimination to male dominance, as investigated by the reciprocal regression analysis of 5 human neoplasias.

We have been investigating the mathematical nature of intercancer linkage that underlies the mutual regulation of cancer risks between any 2 tumors in their variations in time and space. Applications of both sequential regression test and topological manipulation of age-adjusted incidence rate (AAIR) data set enabled us to prepare the oncogene (Onc) activation profile and the tumor suppressor gene (TSG) inactivation profile for each tumor. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between the changes of 2 cancer gene profiles and the sex discrimination of cancer risk in 7 human neoplasias. Results obtained are as follows: i) The sex discrimination of cancer risk could better be defined by the use of log-transformed AAIR data rather than of untransformed AAIR data. ii) The sex discrimination of cancer risk, as calculated with the AAIR data of 47 population units of the world, is as follows: a) breast cancer (Br), M:F=1:120.2; b) thyroid cancer (Thy), M:F=1:2. 64; c) colon cancer (Co), M:F=1.18:1; d) liver cancer (Li), M:F=2. 63:1; e) lung cancer (Lu), M:F=3.66:1; f) esophageal cancer (Eso), M:F=3.68:1; g) laryngeal cancer (Lar), M:F=7.26:1. iii) Female-dominant cancers were associated with inversion (Br) or defectiveness (Thy) of male oncogene profile, whereas male-dominant cancers were associated with inversion (Lar) or defectiveness (Li, Lu and Eso) of female Onc profiles. Sex-indifferent cancer, Co, was distinguished from other tumors by the emergence of defectiveness in the TSG profiles of both sexes. TSG defectiveness was also detectable in female (Br, Thy) and bisexual (Lu) tumors. iv) The Onc vs TSG interaction, as assessed in terms of r value of the reciprocal regression analysis, was increasing in its positivity rate from the top of the female-dominant family (Br) through the sex-indifferent tumor (Co) to the bottom of the male-dominant family (Lar). In conclusion, the emergence of sex discrimination of cancer risk was positively correlated to the extent of integrity of oncogene activation in the dominant gender relative to the recessive gender. Findings with 6 sex-discriminant tumors are discussed in their relevancy to tumorigenesis from the point of view of endocrinological epidemiology.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2004

Private nurses and playboy bunnies: explaining permissible sex discrimination.

Discrimination on the basis of sex in employment is illegal--usually. In cases in which employers contend that sex-based hiring is necessary to protect the privacy interests of their customer, however, and in cases in which employers contend that sex-based hiring is necessary to provide a particular type of sexual titillation for their customers, courts sometimes do allow employers to discriminate. Courts say that they allow sex discrimination in employment when it is necessary to preserve the "essence of the business." This Article shows, however, that there is no plausible conception of business "essence" that can explain and make sense of the existing case law. The Article therefore looks beyond the courts' rhetoric to explain and defend why courts distinguish in the ways they do between permissible and impermissible sex discrimination in employment.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2004

Effects of vomeronasal organ removal on olfactory sex discrimination and odor preferences of female ferrets.

Previous research suggests that body odorants, including anal scents and urinary odors, contribute to sex discrimination and mate identification in European ferrets of both sexes. We assessed the possible role of the vomeronasal organ (VNO) in these functions by surgically removing the organ bilaterally in sexually experienced female ferrets. Lesioned (VNOx) and sham-operated control (VNOi) females reliably discriminated between male- and female-derived anal scent gland as well as fresh urinary odors in habituation/dishabituation tests. However, VNOi females spent significantly more time than VNOx subjects investigating male urinary odors in these tests. Also, VNOi females, but not VNOx subjects, preferred to investigate day-old male versus female urine spots as well as wooden blocks that had previously been soiled by male versus female ferrets. Both groups of female ferrets preferred to approach volatile odors from a breeding male instead of an estrous female in Y-maze tests and both groups showed similar levels of receptive sexual behavior in response to a male's neck grip. The VNO is apparently not required for olfactory sex discrimination or mate recognition in this carnivore, but instead may play a role in promoting continued contact with nonvolatile body odors previously deposited by opposite-sex conspecifics during territorial scent marking.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Sex Discrimination (Amendment) Order 1988 (S.I. No. 249), 17 February 1988.

This Order stipulates that certain provisions of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 will not apply to acts involving discrimination in the employment field. Under these provisions, a certificate may be signed by or on behalf of the Secretary of State of the UK to the effect that an act was done for the purpose of safeguarding national security and is to be conclusive evidence thereof. The Order was made for the purpose of complying with European Community Council Directive 76/207, as interpreted by the European Court of Justice in Johnston vs. Chief Constable of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (see Annual Review of Population Law, Vol. 13, 1986, Section 630).

Developed Countries↗
PubMed2006

The vomeronasal organ is required for the expression of lordosis behaviour, but not sex discrimination in female mice.

The role of the vomeronasal organ (VNO) in mediating neuroendocrine responses in female mice is well known; however, whether the VNO is equally important for sex discrimination is more controversial as evidence exists for a role of the main olfactory system in mate recognition. Therefore, we studied the effect of VNO removal (VNOx) on the ability of female mice to discriminate between volatile and non-volatile odours of conspecifics of the two sexes and in different endocrine states using Y-maze tests. VNOx female mice were able to reliably distinguish between male and female or male and gonadectomized (gdx) male volatile odours. However, when subjects had to discriminate between male and female or gdx male non-volatile odours, VNOx females were no longer able to discriminate between sex or different endocrine status. These results thus show that the VNO is primarily involved in the detection and processing of non-volatile odours, and that female mice can use volatile odours detected and processed by the main olfactory system for mate recognition. However, VNO inputs are needed to promote contact with the male, including facilitation of lordosis responses to his mounts. A single subcutaneous injection with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) partially reversed the deficit in lordosis behaviour observed in VNOx females suggesting that VNO inputs may reach hypothalamic GnRH neurons to influence the display of sexual behaviour.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

Olfactory sex discrimination persists, whereas the preference for urinary odorants from estrous females disappears in male mice after vomeronasal organ removal.

Based on observed changes in the social context for the display of ultrasonic vocalizations, scent marking, aggression, and mounting behavior by male mice with a null mutation of the transient receptor potential 2 ion channel, it was proposed recently that a primary function of the mouse vomeronasal organ (VNO)/accessory olfactory system is sex discrimination. We tested this hypothesis directly by studying the ability of male mice to discriminate between urinary odors of conspecifics of the two sexes and in different endocrine states using habituation-dishabituation tests. Male mice from which the VNO had been surgically removed (VNOx) resembled sham-operated controls (VNOi) in their ability to discriminate between volatile urinary odors from estrous females versus gonadally intact males, as well as between urinary odors from estrous versus ovariectomized females and from gonadally intact versus castrated males. When physical access to stimuli was permitted, VNOi control males strongly preferred to investigate volatile and nonvolatile urinary odorants from estrous females as opposed to intact males, whereas VNOx males showed no such preference. Mating performance in tests with estrous females was equivalent in VNOi and VNOx subjects. Both groups of males preferred to mount an estrous female instead of a castrated male. Our results suggest that the VNO is not required for sex discrimination but instead detects the nonvolatile components of opposite-sex urine that may be used to help prolong contact with individuals that produce these chemosignals.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Re Sex Discrimination in the Civil Service: E.C. Commission v. France, 30 June 1988.

The European Court of Justice held that French laws that allow the separate recruitment of men and women for positions as police and prison officers were in conflict with Article 2(2) of Sex Discrimination Directive 76/207 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women, in particular as regards access to employment. Article 2(2) authorizes exceptions to this general principle for those occupational activities for which, by reason of their nature or the context in which they are carried out, the sex of the worker constitutes a determining factor. The Court ruled that the positions at issue were not sufficiently transparent or sufficiently related to specific activities to justify inclusion within Article 2(2). It also ruled, however, that the position of head prison warden fell within Article 2(2).

Developed Countries↗
PubMed1992

A sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay for gamma-seminoprotein and its application to sex discrimination of blood and bloodstains.

A sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay for gamma-seminoprotein (p30, prostate-specific antigen) is described for sex discrimination of blood and bloodstains. A polystyrene ball coated with rabbit anti-gamma-seminoprotein IgG was incubated with gamma-seminoprotein and, after washing, with affinity-purified rabbit anti-gamma-seminoprotein Fab'-horseradish peroxidase conjugate. Peroxidase activity bound to the polystyrene ball was assayed by fluorometry using 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid as hydrogen donor. The detection limit of gamma-seminoprotein was 0.15 pg per assay. Blood levels of gamma-seminoprotein, measured using 1-10 microliters of blood, were at least 3.3-fold higher in male adults than in female adults. The ratio of gamma-seminoprotein in terms of pg to hemoglobin in terms of mg was significantly higher in male adults than in female adults. Thus, the measurement of gamma-seminoprotein or both gamma-seminoprotein and hemoglobin was useful for the discrimination of blood and bloodstains of male and female adults, although with some limitations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Gender-related biases in evaluations of sex discrimination allegations: is perceived threat the key?

Hypotheses derived from defensive attribution theory and social identity theory were tested in 3 laboratory experiments examining the effects of plaintiff and observer gender on perceived threat, plaintiff identification, and sex discrimination. In Study 1, women differentiated plaintiffs on the basis of gender, whereas men did not. Study 2 showed that this bias occurred because employment discrimination was personally threatening to women but not to men. In Study 3, the bias was reversed in a child custody context. As predicted, men found this context to be significantly more threatening than did women and subsequently exhibited a similarity bias. Mediation analyses suggested that responsibility attributions explained most of the variance in discrimination judgments associated with the plaintiff gender by observer gender interactions.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Visual sex discrimination in goldfish: seasonal, sexual, and androgenic influences.

The olfactory signals used by goldfish for sexual and aggressive communication have been studied extensively, but little work has addressed the role of other sensory modalities in social communication in this species. We therefore investigated the role that visual stimuli play in sex discrimination and the ability of androgens, which masculinize courtship behavior, to affect behavioral responses toward female visual stimuli. We found that males selectively orient toward female visual stimuli during the breeding season but not outside it, whereas prostaglandin F2-alpha (PGF2alpha)-injected females do not differentially approach male and female visual stimuli, even during the breeding season. Implanting adult females with testosterone (T) and 11-ketotestosterone (KT), however, induced orientation responses toward female visual stimuli similar to those observed in males. These results indicate that visual sexual stimuli are likely important for reproductive signaling in goldfish, potentially helping males identify ovulating females from a distance in a shoal of fish, and that androgens can influence mechanisms associated with orientation responses toward such stimuli.

Androgens↗
PubMed1998

Sex discrimination and insurance for contraception.

Unintended pregnancy is a serious problem in the United States. Most private insurance plans do not pay for contraception even though they pay for other prescription drugs and devices. This Article argues that this pattern constitutes sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended by the Pregnancy Discrimination Act. It discusses the reasons this issue has been neglected and suggests ways federal and state officials might remedy this common form of gender discrimination.

Contraception↗
PubMed2002

Loss of sex discrimination and male-male aggression in mice deficient for TRP2.

The mouse vomeronasal organ (VNO) is thought to mediate social behaviors and neuroendocrine changes elicited by pheromonal cues. The molecular mechanisms underlying the sensory response to pheromones and the behavioral repertoire induced through the VNO are not fully characterized. Using the tools of mouse genetics and multielectrode recording, we demonstrate that the sensory activation of VNO neurons requires TRP2, a putative ion channel of the transient receptor potential family that is expressed exclusively in these neurons. Moreover, we show that male mice deficient in TRP2 expression fail to display male-male aggression, and they initiate sexual and courtship behaviors toward both males and females. Our study suggests that, in the mouse, sensory activation of the VNO is essential for sex discrimination of conspecifics and thus ensures gender-specific behavior.

Aggression↗
PubMed2005

Discriminating sex in South African blacks using patella dimensions.

For many years, sex determination has been carried out on skeletal remains to identify individuals in forensic cases and to assess populations in archaeological cases. Since it has been shown that not all bones are found in a forensic case, discriminant function equations should be derived for all bones of the body to assist in sex determination. Numerous studies have shown the usefulness of bones of the lower extremity (e.g. femur, tibia) in sex determination using discriminant function analysis, but the use of patella measurements has not been extensively investigated for this purpose. It is therefore the aim of this study to derive discriminant function equations for sex determination from measurements of the patella of South African blacks as represented in the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons. A total sample of 120 (60 male, 60 female) patellae were measured using six measurements. The Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) program was used to derive the equations. Stepwise and direct analyses were performed with the highest rate of classification of 85% thereby making the patella useful for sex determination. Thus, the proposed equations derived from this study should be used with caution and only on the South African black population group.

Black People↗