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Sexual harassment is a frequent problem for visiting nurses and other community health workers. The Sexual Harassment Intervention Model is offered as a preliminary method for organizing data for assessment and designing intervention strategies.
This study examined the relationship between sexual harassment in work, educational, and social settings and sexual abuse in childhood and/or adulthood in a stratified community sample of 248 African-American and white American women. The cumulative impact of sexual victimization on women's sense of general well-being was also examined. Those most likely to be sexually harassed in work and social settings were women with contact sexual abuse histories, regardless of ethnicity. The work status of harassers of women with sexual abuse histories differed significantly by ethnic group. Although women with prior sexual abuse experiences from both ethnic groups most frequently reported a response to sexual harassment at work, they least frequently did so in social settings. A history of childhood sexual abuse was more negatively associated with African- American women's well-being than were repeated experiences of sexual violence. Future research should address the implications of ethnic and cultural issues on the cumulative impact of incidents of sexual violence on women of color.
Sexual harassment in health care institutions presents a formidable challenge for nurse leaders as solutions and accountabilities get mired in power, politics, and a historical tradition of secrecy and silence. Harassment is devastating to all individuals, but especially to women because it blatantly violates the victim's personal autonomy and individual sense of equality. Sexual harassment lingers in the corridors of all types of organizations, preying on women as they struggle to overcome cultural and socially imposed barriers. Nurse executives must learn the subtle complexities surrounding harassment, voice strong opposition against harassment, and take swift and comprehensive action to prevent sexual harassment.
Perceptions of sexual harassment were investigated as a function of perpetrators' and recipients' gender. Undergraduate students (100 women, 98 men) were presented 34 scenarios of men and women interacting at work. Participants were asked to read carefully each scenario and indicate on a scale anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree) their opinions as to whether the scenario represented an incident of sexual harassment. Analysis indicated that women rated "hostile environment" scenarios as more harassing than men, and male perpetrators were rated as more harassing than female perpetrators. Even though some scenarios were rated as more harassing than others, the full range of the 7-point scale was used on every scenario, indicating a lack of agreement on what constitutes harassment. This lack of agreement highlights the debate within the legal community about whether the "reasonable person" or the "reasonable woman" standard should be used to judge sexual harassment in the workplace.
BACKGROUND: Sexual harassment has become a national concern and one that is increasingly recognized in the field of medicine. Although there are reports of the sexual harassment of medical trainees, there is little information on the prevalence of this problem and whether it is adequately addressed by training institutions. METHODS: Surveys with descriptions and examples of sexual harassment were mailed to 133 internal medicine residents in a university training program. The residents were asked to report anonymously whether they had encountered sexual harassment during medical school or residency, the frequency and type of harassment, its effect on them, whether they chose to report it to a person in authority, and the factors that influenced this decision. RESULTS: Surveys were returned by 82 residents (response rate, 62 percent), 33 women and 49 men. Twenty-four women (73 percent) and 11 men (22 percent) reported that they had been sexually harassed at least once during their training. The women were more likely than the men to have been physically harassed, and the women's harassers were of higher professional status. Among those harassed, 19 of the women (79 percent) and 5 of the men (45 percent) thought that the experience created a hostile environment or interfered with their performance at work, but only 2 women and no men reported their experiences to an authority. The women cited a lack of confidence that they would be helped as the main reason for not reporting the experience, whereas men most commonly said that they had dealt with the problem without the need for outside assistance. CONCLUSIONS: Many medical trainees encounter what they believe to be sexual harassment during medical school or residency, and this often creates a hostile learning and work environment. Training institutions need to address the adverse effects this may have on medical education and patient care.
Sexual harassment of Chinese college students with a focus on their awareness, experiences, responses, and expectations of institutional intervention to the problem was examined. 358 male and 491 female Chinese college students in Hong Kong participated. There were no gender differences in students' awareness of the phenomenon. Students' own experiences were less frequent than what they had heard about sexual harassment. Peer harassment occurred twice as frequently as faculty harassment. Compared to men, twice as many women said they had been sexually harassed. About one in four women students experienced various forms of sexual harassment and 1% were coerced into sexual activities during their college years by either teachers or peers. Students typically avoided and ignored the harassers and felt that the university should take up active roles in combating the problem. Comparisons with U.S. studies suggested that Chinese college students had a lower awareness and experience level in sexual harassment than U.S. students.
Sexual harassment of nurses seriously affects nursing performance and productivity. In this survey, sexual harassment by male patients and coworkers was reported by greater than 70% of the female staff nurses surveyed. The most common manifestations of harassment were sexual remarks; however, behaviors involving touch were frequent. Nurses noted that they often confronted patients when these behaviors occurred, but were less likely to confront male co-workers. Findings suggest that nursing managers and executives must discover and eliminate sexual harassment in hospital work settings and create work cultures that discourage manifestation of sexually harassing behaviors.
BACKGROUND: Sexual harassment within the doctor-patient relationship is typically discussed in terms of male doctors harassing female patients. We investigated the sexual harassment of female doctors by patients. METHODS: Surveys were mailed to a random sample of 599 of the 1064 licensed female family physicians in Ontario, Canada. Respondents were asked about their experiences of sexual harassment by either male or female patients and about the nature and frequency of harassing behavior. Suggestions for prevention were requested. RESULTS: Seventy percent (422) of the questionnaires were completed and returned. More than 75 percent of the respondents reported some sexual harassment by patient at some time during their careers. Physicians had been harassed most often in their own offices and by their own patients. However, in settings such as emergency rooms and clinics, unknown patients presented a proportionately higher risk. The physicians' perceptions of the seriousness of the problem varied with the frequency and severity of the incidents. CONCLUSIONS: Sexual harassment of female doctors appears to occur frequently, and it is therefore an important topic to address in medical school and professional development.
BACKGROUND: Sexual harassment in the workplace is a prevalent form of impermissible sex discrimination in employment. The high profile of this issue in the media, together with laws prohibiting sexual harassment, have not prevented this problem for working nurses. OBJECTIVES: To describe and determine the extent of sexual harassment incidents experienced by nurses working in critical care areas, and to determine attitudes about, and presence of policies regarding, sexual harassment in hospitals. METHODS: For this descriptive study the federal government's definition of sexual harassment and a list of sexually harassing behaviors was mailed with a survey to 188 critical care nurses. RESULTS: Findings indicated that 46% of the respondents had been harassed. Offensive sexual remarks (56%), unwanted physical contact (53%), unwanted nonverbal attention (27%), requests for dates (16%), and sexual propositions (9%) were types of sexual harassment experienced. Sexual assault was experienced by one woman. Harassers were physicians (82%), coworkers (20%), or immediate supervisors (7%). A majority of the incidents (69%) were not reported. Most nurses (80%) had not received training, nor were there policies and procedures to follow in most cases for reporting harassment. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that many critical care nurses are harassed and that relatively few hospitals have sexual harassment policies known to employees. They also indicate that sexual harassment training, policies, and procedures are needed to provide a safe, healthy work environment for critical care nurses.
Sexual harassment can be a difficult problem to identify in the workplace. Scenarios are used to help define and identify harassment. Discussion also includes explanations of why sexual harassment is unethical and illegal.
Sexual harassment has been identified as a significant problem for women in the work force today. The purpose of this pilot study was to provide a preliminary assessment of the perceived problem of sexual harassment of registered dental hygienists (RDHs) in Washington State. The specific aim of the fall 1990 study was to examine the following variables: incidence of sexual harassment in the dental workplace; frequency and severity; perpetrators; perceptions of the general seriousness of harassment in the oral healthcare professions; different actions taken by victims following harassment; known incidents in the workplace; and demographic characteristics of respondents, including career age, educational level, type of oral healthcare practice setting, and birth year. Data were gathered from a 30% random sample of 2,138 registered dental hygienists in Washington State (n = 650) by means of a questionnaire. An initial mailing plus one follow-up mailing yielded a 72.6% (n = 472) response rate. Examination of the returned surveys disclosed that 26.3% of the respondents had personally experienced one or more forms of sexual harassment in their work settings. The most frequently reported types of sexual harassment perpetrated by both employer and patient were, as defined by Cooper, "aesthetic appreciation" and "active mental groping," followed by "social touching" and "sexual abuse," with "ultimate threat" reported least. Fifty-four percent of the harassed respondents (all women) indicated that they had been harassed by male dentists/employers, and 37.1% reported they had been harassed by male patients, with the remaining 8% harassed by coworkers and others. More severe types of harassment were perpetrated by dentists/employers.
Sexual harassment has been discussed in the media and in professional and trade publications. However, it has been ignored almost entirely in nursing literature. The definition of what constitutes sexual harassment, a description of the history of sexual harassment legislation, and measures that should be taken by hospitals and nursing administrators are given. This article helps nurse administrators understand potential problems and establish an employment climate for prevention and intervention.
BACKGROUND: Both domestic violence and sexual harassment may adversely affect women's health but often go unrecognized. OBJECTIVE: To assess women veterans' experiences with domestic violence and with sexual harassment while in the military as well as the relationship of such experiences to health and health care utilization. METHODS: We surveyed all 191 women hospitalized from March 1992 to 1993 at the Minneapolis (Minn) Veterans Affairs Medical Center and 411 randomly selected female outpatients. Data were collected using an anonymous validated questionnaire. RESULTS: Results were stratified by age and analyzed using both bivariable and multivariable techniques. Twenty-four percent of respondents under age 50 years reported domestic violence in the past year and 90% reported sexual harassment while in the military. Among older respondents, 7% said they had experienced domestic violence in the past year and 37% reported a history of sexual harassment while in the military. Of those who reported domestic violence in the past year, 50% of respondents under age 50 years and 28% of older respondents said that at least one assault was life-threatening. Rates of reports of completed and attempted sexual assaults while in the military were 20 times higher than previous reports by other government employees. Respondents with a history of either domestic violence (odds ratio, 2.83; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.38 to 5.78) or sexual harassment while in the military (odds ratio, 2.84; 95% CI, 1.22 to 6.53) were more than twice as likely to report a history of anxiety or depression, and a history of domestic violence was associated with more lifetime surgical procedures (odds ratio, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.10 to 1.33). CONCLUSIONS: Histories of domestic violence within the past year and of sexual harassment while in the military are common among women veterans. Both may be associated with adverse effects on mental and physical health.
OBJECTIVE: A few widely publicized cases have made sexual harassment a salient subject in the 1990s. This article reviews the topic in a comprehensive manner, with particular attention to demographic information, psychosocial consequences, appropriate therapeutic interventions, and related psychological issues. METHOD: Computerized literature searches were used to identify research and review papers from psychiatry and psychology journals. Nonscientific works that provide additional information are also cited. RESULTS: The literature suggests that sexual harassment is a widespread phenomenon, affecting 42% of women and 15% of men in occupational settings, 73% of women and 22% of men during medical training, and lower percentages in other educational settings. Despite the pervasive nature of this problem, only 1%-7% of victims file formal complaints. Sexual harassment produces an array of psychological and physical symptoms in over 90% of victims, and 12% seek help from mental health care professionals. Self-doubt is a central issue regardless of gender, but in instances where the perpetrator is male and the victim is female, there are ramifications unique to the trauma of gender-based abuse. It is critical that therapists avoid contributing to the process of "second injury" and not imply that patients have brought their troubles on themselves. Key therapeutic tasks include empathy, validation, and empowerment. CONCLUSIONS: Few experimental studies have focused on the victims of sexual harassment, and none have focused on the perpetrators. Psychiatry can play an invaluable role in the assessment and treatment of victims, the fostering of education and research in this area, and the understanding of underlying psychological and gender issues.
One characteristic of men who sexually harass is that they are not aware that their actions are inappropriate or a misuse of their power (L. F. Fitzgerald, 1993a). We investigated the existence and automaticity of a mental association between the concepts of power and sex, and its consequences for sexual harassment tendencies. Using a subliminal priming paradigm, Experiment 1 demonstrated an automatic link between power and sex, and only for men high in the likelihood to sexually harass or aggress. In Experiment 2, male participants were unobtrusively primed with either power-related or neutral stimuli. For men likely to sexually aggress, but not other participants, attraction ratings of a female confederate were significantly higher in the power priming than the neutral priming condition.
This study sought to determine the prevalence and impact of violence and sexual harassment experienced by registered nurses (RNs) in their workplaces in Illinois. A random sample of 1,130 RNs were selected to participate in the mail survey. The instrument used was the Nurse Assault Survey originally developed by the Nurse Assault Project Team in Ontario, Canada, and modified by the author. Three hundred forty-five subjects completed the survey (response rate: 30%). Fifty-seven percent of those responding reported personal experience with some aspect of sexual harassment, and 26% reported being victimized by physical assault while on the job. About one third of those who indicated they had been sexually harassed also had been physically assaulted. Patients/clients were the most frequent perpetrators of sexual harassment and physical assault, while physicians committed over half of the sexual assaults. Bivariate analysis showed a significant relationship between physical assault and levels of job satisfaction. A significant relationship also was found between sexual harassment and levels of job satisfaction. Results demonstrate that nurses need to take and active role in fostering a work environment free from violence and sexual harassment. They should be knowledgeable about institutional policies and, where none exist, they should work with administrators to develop them. Prevention and intervention programs should be developed for both student and registered nurses.
Sexual harassment has been a fixture of the workplace since women first began to work outside the home. Although true epidemiological studies do not exist, large-scale surveys of working women suggest that approximately 1 of every 2 women will be harassed at some point during their academic or working lives. The data indicate that harassment is degrading, frightening, and sometimes physically violent; frequently extends over a considerable period of time; and can result in profound job-related, psychological; and health-related consequences. This article provides a brief review of the prevalence and consequences of sexual harassment and outlines social policy implications for research, legislation, and primary prevention.
Guidelines and institutional policies regarding sexual harassment in academia have a relatively short and controversial background. Deference to Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) guidelines in employment sexual harassment incidents guides much of the thinking in contemporary courts. Title IX of the Educational Amendments and the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 are but two of the legal redresses available to students with harassment grievance complaints. Lack of definition of the term as well as research studies in nursing complicate the issue of sexual harassment. The potential impact of harassment on nursing students both in the classroom and in the practice area is significant. Nursing administrators and educators must be proactive in writing and implementing policies regarding sexual harassment.