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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2002

Snacks consumed in a nonhungry state have poor satiating efficiency: influence of snack composition on substrate utilization and hunger.

BACKGROUND: Several epidemiologic studies suggest that snacking may play an etiologic role in obesity. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the behavioral and metabolic consequences of a high-carbohydrate (HC) or high-protein (HP) snack consumed 215 min after lunch, thereby investigating ways that snacking in a nonhungry state could be involved in the etiology of obesity. DESIGN: Eight lean young men attended 3 sessions (basal, HP snack, and HC snack) in a counterbalanced order with 2 wk between sessions. During all sessions, subjects were time-blinded while we measured the temporal pattern of plasma glucose, insulin, and fatty acid concentrations; hunger ratings; substrate oxidation; and energy expenditure from 215 min after the beginning of lunch until the spontaneous dinner request. RESULTS: Compared with the basal (no snack) session, the HP snack delayed the spontaneous dinner request (by 38 +/- 16 min, P < 0.05) but the HC snack did not. Energy and macronutrient intakes at dinner were unaffected by both snacks. After the HP snack, plasma fatty acid concentrations were lower (P < 0.05), but glucose and insulin were unchanged compared with the basal session. After the HC snack, plasma glucose and insulin concentrations were higher and plasma fatty acid concentrations were lower than those in the basal session (P < 0.05 for both). Both snacks promoted carbohydrate utilization (P < 0.05), and the HC snack depressed fat oxidation (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study showed that a snack consumed in a satiety state has poor satiating efficiency irrespective of its composition, which is evidence that snacking plays a role in obesity.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Snack consumption and waste by preschool children served "cute" versus regular snacks.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if preschool children would eat and waste different amounts of food when served snacks in a regular versus a "cute" form. DESIGN: Preschool children were served 6 snacks in a cute form and the same snacks in a regular form using the same food components during 24 snack sessions. Children served as their own controls. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Thirty-nine children ages 36 to 60 months (20 girls, 19 boys) in a university child development laboratory. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Snack portions eaten and wasted and time for eating. ANALYSIS: Data were analyzed using a 2 3 6 factorial analysis of variance, with snack form (cute or regular) and snack components as the 2 factors. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in children's snack consumption or waste between cute and regular versions of snacks. It took children an average of 2 minutes longer to eat the cute snacks. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: There is no apparent advantage to serving cute snacks in terms of increased consumption or decreased waste. Further research should be conducted on children's mealtime behaviors when served cute foods to learn more about children's responses to the overall appearance of their food.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1985

Appalachian adolescents' snack patterns: morning, afternoon, and evening snacks.

The snack patterns of 225 adolescents selected from four metropolitan and three rural schools in eastern Tennessee were examined with the use of 24-hour food records kept on a school day. Most (89%) of the respondents ate at least one snack on the day of the survey. Morning snacks, most of which were obtained from school stores or school vending machines, were more likely to include candies and salty snack foods than were afternoon and evening snacks, most of which were eaten at home. Breads and cereals were popular choices for afternoon and evening snacks. Carbonated beverages and desserts were popular during all time periods. Nutrient densities of snacks were low in all time periods but lowest in morning snacks. Nutrients present in lowest amounts were iron, calcium, and vitamin A. Snack patterns of boys and girls were similar, although boys' intakes of energy, calcium, and riboflavin were higher than those of girls.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

High protein high fibre snack bars reduce food intake and improve short term glucose and insulin profiles compared with high fat snack bars.

The replacement in the diet of refined carbohydrate and fat with fibre and protein has been shown to promote satiety and improve glucose and insulin profiles. It is less clear whether the macronutrient composition of individual foods such as snacks have any meaningful impact on metabolic parameters and satiety. We examined if the consumption of higher protein higher fibre snack bars would result in reducing outcome measures such as food intake and glucose and insulin patterns compared to a conventional isocaloric high fat high refined carbohydrate snack bar. Twenty three women were randomized in a single blind cross over study with 2 interventions, a high fat high sugar snack bar and a comparatively higher protein, higher fibre snack bar intervention. Snack bars were eaten at mid morning and mid afternoon, and a standard breakfast and ad libitum buffet lunch. The glucose and insulin responses over 9 hours were significantly lower (P = 0.014 and P = 0.012 respectively) during the high protein snack bar intervention. Peak glucose levels were also 16% lower after the morning HP bar (P <0.001). The morning high protein bar reduced the energy intake at the buffet lunch meal by 5% (4657 +/- 1025KJ vs 4901 +/- 1186KJ, P < 0.05). Altering the macronutrient composition of a snack bar can assist in reducing the energy intake at a subsequent meal and improve short term glucose and insulin profiles.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Development by extrusion of soyabari snack sticks: a nutritionally improved soya-maize product based on the Nigerian snack (kokoro).

A nutritionally improved local snack compared to existing kokoro has been developed by extrusion cooking of different formulations of maize, soybean and condiments such as pepper, onion, salt, palm oil, plantain and banana. The improved snack was named as the 'soyabari snack stick'. The chemical composition of representative extruded products indicates a high level of crude protein, fat, energy, available lysine and improved in vitro digestibility compared to the usual maize-based products. The level of stachyose and raffinose were greatly reduced in the extruded products compared to raw soya. Formulations using various additives yielded products suitable for different consumers' preferences such as hot, sweet, bland, gritty or crispy and acceptable to taste assessors. Soyabari snack sticks were equally acceptable as Bombay mix, a product on the market in London. Sensory analysis showed no significant differences in the two products but the crude fibre content of Bombay mix was higher while the protein was slightly lower than for soyabari sticks. Local ingredients can produce acceptable extrudates.

Dietary Fats↗
PubMed2003

Ambiguity of 'snack' in British usage.

Research into least fattening eating patterns indicates that in England 'a snack' is a term that refers to different eating habits from 'snacking' and that neither pattern of behaviour necessarily involves 'snack food'. These hypotheses were tested by randomised mailings to a convenience sample of university campus addressees with the subject heading of the message and the topic of questions in it being one of the terms, a snack, snacking or snack food. Responses to all three terms much more often referred to eating between mealtimes than eating at mealtimes but this contrast was less for a snack, especially at lunchtime. Previous and subsequent eating occasions therefore tended to be at mealtimes, but again less so for a snack. A snack also differed from snacking or eating snack food in eliciting more reports by women of eating in the home than out, and more eating alone than in company. However, reports by men contributed most to differences between snack terms in the foods reported: more men ate bread in a snack than when snacking but more ate sweet items when snacking than in a snack. More men reported savoury items (e.g. potato crisps) as snack food than in response to the other two terms; however, when savouries were combined with bread-containing items, the women were unlike the men in that more of them referred to such items when snacking. Thus, for these people in England, having a snack is not the same thing as snacking or eating snack food. Because of these ambiguities in use of the root word snack, it may be best to avoid all its derivatives in questions to research participants, discussion among investigators and educational messages.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

A medium-term intervention study on the impact of high- and low-fat snacks varying in sweetness and fat content: large shifts in daily fat intake but good compensation for daily energy intake.

Thirty-six normal-weight, habitual snackers (eighteen males, eighteen females) completed a medium-term intervention study designed to examine the tendency of four different types of snacks, varying in nutrient (low- (LF) or high-fat (HF) and sensory properties (sweet (SW) or non-sweet (NSW)), to influence the control of appetite and to adjust daily energy intake. Subjects were exposed to each snack category for a 3-week period and were asked to consume a minimum number of snacks each day so that at least 25% of their daily energy intake would be derived from the test snacks. Energy and macronutrient intakes from the test snacks were calculated every day and also from other eating episodes (using 3 d food diary records) during the third week of snack exposure. Subjects consumed more energy/d from the SW snacks than from the NSW snacks, with most energy being consumed from the HF/SW snacks (3213 kJ) and least energy from the LF/NSW snacks (1628 kJ). This differential snack intake remained stable across the whole snack exposure period. Total daily energy intake did not differ significantly during exposure to any of the four snack types. Furthermore, the encouragement to eat freely from the test snacks did not lead to daily overconsumption of energy when compared with pre-study intakes. Hence, the level of snack consumption was largely compensated for by the energy consumed from the rest of the eating pattern. Although daily energy intake during exposure to the HF snacks was an average of 364 kJ higher (NS) than that during exposure to the LF snacks, the clearest and most significant effect of snack consumption was on daily macronutrient intake. Appreciable consumption of the HF snacks raised the percentage of total daily energy intake consumed as fat from 37 to 41% (P < 0.01). In contrast, the LF snacks reduced daily fat intake to 33.5% (LF/SW, P < 0.05; LF/NSW, NS) of total daily energy. The results, therefore, suggest that, in habitual snackers, generous consumption of LF snacks, when compared with HF snacks, is an effective strategy to reduce fat intake so that it approaches the recommendations of dietary guidelines without increasing total daily energy intake.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

The increasing prevalence of snacking among US children from 1977 to 1996.

OBJECTIVES: To determine snacking trends and changes in nutrient contribution of snacking over time. STUDY DESIGN: Nationally representative data from the 1977-78 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS77), 1989-91 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII89), and 1994-96 (CSFII96) were used. The sample consisted of 21,236 individuals aged 2 to 18 years. METHODS: For each survey year, mean numbers of snacks consumed, mean grams consumed per snack, and mean energy intake from snacks were computed, as was contribution of snacking to total energy intake and fat intake. Snacking was self-defined, and a snacking occasion consisted of all snack foods consumed during a 15-minute period. Differences in means between age groups and across survey years were compared. RESULTS: The prevalence of snacking increased in all age groups. The average size of snacks and energy per snack remained relatively constant; however, the number of snacking occasions increased significantly, therefore increasing the average daily energy from snacks. Compared with non-snack eating occasions, the nutrient contribution of snacks decreased in calcium density and increased in energy density and proportion of energy from fat. CONCLUSION: Snacking is extremely prevalent in our society. Healthy snack food choices should be emphasized over high-energy density convenience snacks for children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Contribution of snacks and meals in the diet of French adults: a diet-diary study.

To investigate the relative contributions of meals and snacks in the daily intake of free-living humans, 54 French adults maintained food intake diaries for four 7-day periods. They recorded all food and fluid intakes mentioning whether, in their opinion, each intake event was a snack or a meal. The weekly food diaries also contained information on the circumstances of each event such as time and place, number of persons present, and affective states (hunger, satiety, etc.) before and after intake. On average, 2.7 meals and 1.3 snacks were consumed each day. Very few days included no snacking. Total daily energy and nutrient intake were not different between days with and days without snacks. Snacks differed from meals in several dimensions. Meals were about twice as large as snacks in energy and weight. Nutrient intake, in absolute values, was higher in meals. In proportions, however, snacks contained more CHO and less fat and proteins. Most foods were consumed in larger amounts in the context of meals but a few (sweets, cereal bars, biscuits, and sodas) were mostly consumed as snacks. Hunger was more intense before but less intense after meals than snacks. The satiety ratio was higher for snacks than meals. Time of day affected many intake parameters. For example, afternoon snacks exhibited a high satiety ratio for a modest intake. The present study describes the status of several potential determining factors at the time of snacks in humans, demonstrating a specific role for snacks, as opposed to meals, in the daily eating pattern of healthy adults.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Incorporation of air into a snack food reduces energy intake.

This study investigated how the air content of a familiar snack food affected energy intake and whether varying the method of serving the snack modified intake. We tested two versions of an extruded snack (cheese puffs) that were equal in energy density (5.7 kcal/g), but differed in energy per volume (less-aerated snack: 1.00 kcal/ml; more-aerated snack: 0.45 kcal/ml). In a within-subjects design, 16 women and 12 men consumed the snacks ad libitum in the laboratory during four afternoon sessions. A standard volume (1250 ml) of each snack was served once in a bowl and once in an opaque bag. Results showed significant differences in intake of the two snacks by energy (p=0.0003) and volume (p<0.0001); subjects consumed 21% less weight and energy (70+/-17 kcal) of the more-aerated snack than the less-aerated snack, although they consumed a 73% greater volume of the more-aerated snack (239+/-24 ml). These findings suggest that subjects responded to both the weight and volume of the snack. Despite differences in intake, hunger and fullness ratings did not differ across conditions. The serving method did not significantly affect intake. Results from this study indicate that incorporating air into food provides a strategy to reduce energy intake from energy-dense snacks.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

[Factors influencing snack behaviours of young children in Hefei and evaluation of the effection of interventions].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of the parent-to-child and teacher-to-child models used in the Snack Risk Factor Intervention Project for Children (SRFIPC) to change the snack pattern of children. METHODS: Using the community-based intervention trail, nutrition education was implemented based on the parent-to-child and teacher-to-child models among 2102 pre-school children aged 4-6 years in 8 day-care centres of Hefei City, Anhui Province. Data on snack consumption of young children was obtained using a snack behaviour questionnaire. RESULTS: (1) The rate of snacking was high in young children of Hefei. The attitude and diet behavior of the parent are the main influence of the young children snack behavior. (2) The snack frequency of children in intervention group decreased as compared with the control group (P < 0.001). However, children who have higher frequent snacking in the intervention group did not have significant change in their snack behaviours compared with children in the control group. (3) The percentage of children who consumed snacks between meals increased, while the percentage of children who consumed snacks ad arbitrium was greatly decreased in the intervention group (both P < 0.001). (4) The percentages of snacks low in nutrition density, such as the biscuit, cake, confectionery, ham sausage, beverages were lower in intervention group than in the control group. CONCLUSION: It is useful to intervention the children's snack behaviours parent-to-child and teacher-to-child models.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Dietary restraint, anxiety, and the relative reinforcing value of snack food in non-obese women.

This study tested the independent and interactive effects of anxiety and dietary restraint on the relative reinforcing value of snack food. Thirty non-obese, female university students were assigned to one of four groups based on median split scores on measures of dietary restraint and state-anxiety: low-restraint/low-anxiety (n=7), low-restraint/high-anxiety (n=7), high-restraint/low-anxiety (n=9), and high-restraint/high-anxiety (n=7). Participants were provided the choice to earn points for palatable snack foods or fruits and vegetables using a computerized concurrent schedules choice task. The behavioural cost to gain access to snack foods increased across trials, whereas the cost to gain access to fruits and vegetables was held constant across trials. The relative reinforcing value of palatable snack food in relation to fruits and vegetables was defined as the total amount of points earned for snack food. Two-way analysis of covariance, with hunger and hedonic snack food ratings as covariates, showed that dietary restraint and anxiety had a significant interactive effect on the relative reinforcing value of snack food, indicating that the effect of anxiety on snack food reinforcement is moderated by dietary restraint. Specifically, the high-anxiety/low-restraint women found snack food significantly less reinforcing than low-anxiety/low-restraint women, but no differences emerged between high- and low-anxiety women with high-restraint. Neither restraint nor anxiety had an independent effect on the relative reinforcing value of snack food. These findings indicate that anxiety may have a suppressive effect on the relative reinforcing value of snack food in low-restrained eaters, but not an enhancing effect on snack food reinforcement in high-restrained eaters. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: meal and snack intakes of Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers.

OBJECTIVE: To describe meal and snack patterns of Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers. DESIGN: A cross-sectional telephone survey in which mothers or other primary caregivers reported their infants' and toddlers' food and beverage intake for a 24-hour period. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Subjects were a subset of the national random sample of children aged 4-24 months who participated in the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study. The Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study includes a stratified random sample of 3,022 infants and toddlers aged 4-24 months. Three hundred seventy-one Hispanic and 2,637 non-Hispanic children who had 24-hour dietary recalls are included in the subset. ANALYSES: Means+/-standard errors of daily intakes of energy, nutrients, and nutrient densities were calculated, as were percentages of children consuming foods at each eating occasion. RESULTS: Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers, on average, were fed seven times per day. Overall, the percentages of children who ate snacks increased with age, and more than 80% of toddlers aged 12-24 months consumed afternoon snacks, with more than 90% of Hispanic children consuming an afternoon snack. In each age group, there were significant differences between ethnic groups in nutrient intakes by eating occasion. No significant difference was seen for energy across all meal occasions. At age 6-11 months, Hispanic children had a significantly lower intake of carbohydrate at dinner and lower intake of saturated fat at afternoon snacks compared with non-Hispanic children (P<.05). The main difference between Hispanic children's and non-Hispanic children's intakes by eating occasion is at age 12-24 months. Hispanics aged 12-24 months had significantly (P<.05) lower percentages of energy from fat and saturated fat and a significantly (P<.05) higher percentage of carbohydrate at lunch compared with non-Hispanic children. For dinner, Hispanic toddlers had significantly (P<.05) lower intakes of total fat and saturated fat compared with non-Hispanic toddlers at age 12-24 months. Overall fiber intake contributed 2 g/meal for both ethnic groups. Snacks contributed, on average, less than 1 g fiber, except Hispanic toddlers had significantly higher fiber intake at afternoon snacks (1.5 g) than non-Hispanic toddlers. Foods frequently consumed at meals and snacks were lacking in whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Most nutrients were not significantly different between Hispanics and non-Hispanics for meals and snacks. CONCLUSIONS: Considering the sizeable contribution that snacks make toward overall energy, parents and caregivers should plan toddlers' snacks to complement meals by including additional fruits, vegetables, and whole grains that are culturally appropriate rather than fruit drinks, cookies, and crackers. This will increase fiber intake and limit fat and sugar intakes. To develop healthful eating patterns, introduce toddlers to foods eight to 10 times to increase food acceptance and the likelihood of establishing healthful eating patterns. Dietetics professionals need to consider cultural differences when developing meal and snack patterns for Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1998

Snack patterns of older Europeans.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the snack consumption of older people from several European towns. Subjects with similar snack patterns are clustered into groups to explore the contribution of snacks to daily energy and micronutrient intake. DESIGN: Data from the 1993 Survey in Europe on Nutrition and the Elderly: A Concerted Action (SENECA) follow-up study were collected from a random, age-stratified sample of inhabitants of small traditional towns in Europe. Food intake data collected by the 3-day estimated record method were used for grouping snack foods into 15 food groups. From these data daily energy intake and intake of calcium; iron; and vitamins B-1, B-2, B-6, and C were calculated. Additional self-reported data were collected for health status, presence of chronic diseases, and activity level. SUBJECTS/SETTING: The study population consisted of 379 men and 428 women aged 74 to 79 years and who were inhabitants of the following towns: Haguenau, France; Romans, France; Padua, Italy; Culemborg, The Netherlands; Yverdon, Switzerland; and Marki, Poland. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Cluster analysis was used to classify subjects into groups based on similarity in snack patterns. RESULTS: In general, older people from the various European towns consumed the same snack types. Five distinct snack patterns emerged from our analyses. The large group light snackers had a low snack use and low energy and micronutrient intakes. Alcohol drinkers and dairy snackers had a high snack use and high intakes of energy and several vitamins and minerals. Fruit and vegetable snackers and sweet drinkers often had intake values between the other 3 groups. APPLICATIONS: Our study indicates the existence of identifiable snack patterns that coincide with different intakes of energy and micronutrients. Especially in countries in which people derive high percentages of energy through snacking, the identification of snack patterns can improve dietary advice, gearing it to personal needs.

Activities of Daily Living↗