Effect of a forebrain lesion on the polycyclic sleep-wake cycle and sleep-wake patterns in the cat.
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Animals↗
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[Affective evaluation of meaningful acoustic stimuli in wakefulness and its influence on sleep behavior. II. Affective evaluation of meaningful acoustic signals in wakefulness].
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Acoustic Stimulation↗
[Affective evaluation of meaningful acoustic stimulation in the waking state and its effect on sleep behavior. Stage I: Affective evaluation of acoustical terms in the waking state].
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Acoustic Stimulation↗
Accuracy of respiratory inductive plethysmography during wakefulness and sleep in patients with obstructive sleep apnea.
To assess the accuracy of the respiratory inductive plethysmograph (RIP) during sleep in obese patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), we monitored 13 patients with OSA during wakefulness and nocturnal sleep with simultaneous measurements of tidal volume from RIP and integrated airflow. Patients wore a tightly fitting face mask with pneumotachograph during wakefulness and sleep. Calibrations were performed during wakefulness prior to sleep and compared with subsequent wakeful calibrations at the end of the study. Patients maintained the same posture during sleep (supine, 11; lateral, two) as during calibrations. There were no significant differences in calibrations before sleep and after awakening. The mean error in 13 patients undergoing RIP measurements of tidal volume during wakefulness was -0.7 +/- 3.4 percent while that during sleep was 2.1 +/- 14.9 percent (p < 0.001). The standard deviation (SD) of the differences between individual breaths measured by RIP and integrated airflow was 9.8 +/- 5.5 percent during wakefulness and 25.5 +/- 18.6 percent during sleep (p < 0.001). During both wakefulness and sleep, errors in RIP tidal volume were not significantly correlated with body mass index. In 12 patients with at least 10 percent time in each of stages 1 and 2 sleep, SD was greater in stage 2 sleep compared with wakefulness and stage 1 (p < 0.001). In three patients who manifested all stages of sleep, SD was greater in REM sleep than in wakefulness and all stages of non-REM sleep (p < 0.001). In three patients who manifested all stages of sleep, SD was greater in REM sleep than in wakefulness and all stages of non REM sleep (p < 0.001). This was associated with paradoxic motion of the rib cage in two patients during REM. We conclude that, despite increased errors in individual breath measurements during sleep, more marked during stages 2 and REM sleep, RIP is clinically useful to measure ventilation quantitatively in obese patients with sleep apnea. The criterion of a decrease of 50 percent in tidal volume assessed by RIP is appropriate to define hypopneas in such patients.
Adult↗
Night waking during infancy: role of parental presence at bedtime.
Night waking occurs commonly in infants and young children. The goal of this study is to determine whether parents who report being present when their infant falls asleep at bedtime are more likely to report increased frequency of night waking by the infant. Mothers were consecutively recruited when they brought their infants to the clinic for their 9-month well-child visit. A total of 122 mothers agreed to participate and completed a questionnaire consisting of closed-ended, forced choice questions about their infant's feeding and sleeping behavior, and demographic and psychosocial characteristics. For 33% of the mothers, a parent was routinely present when the infant went to sleep. The entire sample of infants averaged 4.1 night wakings during the week prior to questionnaire completion. Infants whose parents were present at bedtime were significantly more likely to wake at night than infants whose parents were not present (6.2 vs 3.1, P = .01). Frequent night waking (seven or more wakings in the prior week) occurred in 28% of the sample. More of the infants whose parents were present experienced frequent night waking compared with infants whose parents were not present (40% vs 22%, P less than .04). When potential confounding variables were controlled by multivariate analysis, parents being present when the child went to sleep was independently associated with night waking (P less than .03). The association of parental presence at bedtime and night waking has implications for preventing and managing disruptive night waking in infancy.
Behavior↗
Interpositus and fastigial unit activity during sleep and waking in the cat.
Fine wire microelectrodes were used to record single unit activity from two of the intracerebellar nuclei, the interpositus and fastigius, during the sleep-waking cycle. The mean rates, interspike interval distributions and patterns of firing as revealed by autocorrelograms, were investigated. For each stage of the sleep-waking cycle and for as many units as possible the constancy of these measures was examined throughout several sleep cycles. Twenty-four interpositus units were recorded throughout at least one complete sleep-waking cycle. The firing rate of these units in paradoxical sleep without REM was equal to that in quiet wakefulness and greater than that occurring during slow wave sleep. The highest firing rates occurred during REM periods. Some interpositus units were found to have apparent eye movement related activity during REM periods but there was no correlation with waking eye movements. Eleven fastigial units were investigated throughout the sleep-waking cycle. At least half of these units were found to have rhythmic bursting activity during paradoxical sleep which did not appear to be tightly linked with REM periods. Fastigial and interpositus units were found to have slow shifts in their 'background' level of firing which occurred independently of the sleep-waking cycle. The results of these experiments are discussed in relation to the known inputs to the nuclei and in relation to previous studies on other groups of neurons during sleep and waking.
Animals↗
Estimates on the duration of sleep and wakefulness made in isolation.
Fifteen subjects who lived singly in an isolation unit without temporal cues were asked to note every day after awakening how many hours they thought they had slept, and in the evening before retiring how many hours they had been awake. These estimates of the duration of sleep and wakefulness were compared with the intervals between two signals given by the subjects by pressing a button at the time of waking up and when turning off their bedside reading lamp. The results can be summarized as follows: (a) the daily estimated durations of sleep and wakefulness were positively correlated with the actual durations in all but one subject; (b) sleep and wake times were better estimated in the presence of a light-dark cycle even if the subjects were not entrained by the zeitgeber; (c) for both episodes, there was a consistent trend from an overestimation of relatively short to an underestimation of long durations; (d) with equal durations in the two episodes, sleep was estimated to be shorter than wake time; (e) the most accurate estimates centered around 10.5 h of sleep and 13.5 h of wake time; (f) the sleep and wake times added up to 24 h in subjects who did not deliberately "compensate" for relatively long sleep estimates with a short wake estimate, with the full cycle being adjusted to 24 h.
Activity Cycles↗
The short-term effects of dl-propranolol on the wake-sleep cycle of the rat are related to selective changes in preoptic cyclic AMP concentration.
The short-term effects of the intraperitoneal administration of dl-propranolol on the wake-sleep cycle of the rat were studied in relation to the cyclic AMP concentration in the preoptic region and cerebral cortex. The results show that propranolol, but not saline, affected all stages of the wake-sleep cycle, increasing wakefulness, decreasing synchronized sleep and abolishing desynchronized sleep. These effects were associated with a decrement in cyclic AMP concentration both in wakefulness and synchronized sleep. However, this decrement was relatively larger in the preoptic region than in the cerebral cortex. The effects of the drug on cyclic AMP accumulation were also studied in hypoxia, a condition of unspecific brain stimulation. In this condition, the cyclic AMP concentration in both brain regions was found to be higher than that observed during either wakefulness or synchronized sleep. In the hypoxic condition propranolol was found to decrease the nucleotide concentration to the same levels observed in wakefulness and synchronized sleep following its administration. However, no difference in the relative magnitude of the decrement was found between the preoptic region and the cerebral cortex. These findings suggest that in both brain regions the drug acts on a cyclic AMP accumulating system, which may be defined as propranolol-sensitive. The activity of the propranolol-sensitive system in the preoptic region would appear to be related to wake-sleep processes.
Animals↗
Ventral hippocampus spikes during sleep, wakefulness, and arousal in the cat.
The relationship between high amplitude (100--300- micro V) spike potentials (50--100 msec duration) in the ventral hippocampus (VH) and sleep-wakefulness stages was investigated. Forty-eight hours of continuous recordings taken from 5 chronically implanted cats were quantitatively scored for stage by digitized outputs of integrated EEG and electromyographic signals and for VH spikes by automatic devices. (1) A very strong relationship was observed between VH spike rates and EEG stage. Spikes were rare during wakefulness and paradoxical sleep (PS). They were always most frequent during nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep stages, progressively increasing through drowsiness, moderate amplitude slow wave activity, and high amplitude slow wave activity. (2) VH spike rates varied inversely with level of behavioral arousal within wakefulness. Rates were lowest during the presentation of novel experimental stimuli, higher during spontaneous movement, and highest during quiet wakefulness. (3) VH spikes anticipated stage changes independent of the quantified EEG. Spike rates increased from previous baseline levels in the 30 sec epoch of waking immediately preceding NREM sleep onset and in the transition period between PS and NREM sleep. They decreased significantly from previous base-line levels in the 30 sec epoch of NREM sleep preceding either waking or PS. These results show that the VH spike is a potentially useful noncortical indicator of NREM sleep. Within wakefulness and in the anticipation of stage changes it can be a more sensitive indicator of sleep processes or arousal level than the EEG.
Animals↗
Circadian rhythm disorders in sleep-waking and body temperature in elderly patients with dementia and their treatment.
Circadian rhythms in elderly patients with severe dementia and behavioral disorders such as wandering, agitation and/or delirium were examined. The subjects consisted of 24 patients with dementia (5 with senile dementia of Alzheimer's type and 19 with multi-infarct dementia), aged 56-89 (means = 75.5 +/- 8.7) and 8 control patients without dementia or with dementia of slight degree, aged 65-81 (means = 75 +/- 5.4). The sleep-wake state of the patients was judged every hour by nurses over periods of 1-4 mo and recorded in the form of a sleep diary. Oral temperature was recorded for 4-7 consecutive days. For the treatment of sleep-wake rhythm disorders, social interaction with nurses was encouraged in addition to drug therapy. The patients showed various types of sleep-wake disorders such as reversed day-night rhythm or irregular sleep-wake rhythm corresponding to a decreased amplitude of the sleep-wake rhythm. Circadian rhythm of oral temperature was irregularly disturbed in 59.0% of the patients in the dementia group and in only 12.5% of the patients in the control group. The effects of treatment by enforcement of social interaction with nurses was effective in reducing behavioral problems and sleep-wake rhythm disorder in 30.0% of the patients tested. However, body temperature rhythm disorganization remained after the treatment. These observations indicate that behavioral disorders such as delirium, agitation or wandering in patients with severe dementia might be closely related to disrupted biological rhythms of sleep-waking and the autonomic system (body temperature).
Aged↗
Physiological classification of sleep-wake states: based on tri-vesicular (3V) model of the brain.
A new physiological classification of sleep-wake states, based on a novel Tri-Vesicular (3V) model of the brain is proposed. The 3V model consists of an interconnected network of three primal brain vesicles, namely, right and left Arch-Encephalon (Mesencephalon + Diencephalon + Telencephalon) and one DeuterEncephalon (Metencephalon + Myelencephalon). Nine sleep-wake states are defined on the basis of the central activational index (activation and/or inhibition of the 3 brain vesicles), and the level of global arousal. Four sleep states I-IV, four wake states I-IV, and one transitional sleep-wake state, are characterized. The four sleep states correspond with the four non-REM sleep stages, the transitional sleep-wake state correlates with REM sleep, and four wake states are defined in terms of minimal, low, moderate, and high, global behavioral arousal. Three sets of data in the form of polysomnographic and aerobic exercise studies in five adult subjects, and 30 days' data of self-monitored arousal and oro-nasal breathing patterns, are provided in support of this physiological classification of sleep-wake states and the 3V brain model.
Adult↗
Pubertal sleep-wake patterns of episodic LH, FSH and testosterone release in twin boys.
On 2 consecutive nights, plasma LH, FSH and testosterone (T) were measured every20 min for 12 h during evening wakefulness and polygraphic sleep in 5 pairs of male monozygotic twins in pubertal stages 1-4, and in a male dizygotic also studied in 3 twins. During sleep, significant enhancement of episodic LH release was seen on 16 of 18 nights on the stage 1-4 twins. During wakefulness, minimal episodic LH release was observed in the stage 1-3 twins, which then gradually increased in the more mature twins, until finally the significant sleep-wake difference in mean LH was lost in the stage 5 male. Testosterone also rose significantly in sleep on 19 of 20 study nights in the stage 1-5 twins. In the early pubertal twins this nocturnal rise in T was small, but in the midpubertal pairs it was profound, as peaks in T occurred which lay in the normal range for adult males. In these less mature twins the majority of the episodic secretion of T also was limited to sleep. In wakefulness, the T levels gradually increased across puberty until, in the stage 5 twin, wakeful peaks in T finally reached the adult male range. In the midpubertal twins, a close temporal relationship was seen between initiation of sleep-enhanced LH release and the subsequent initial rise in T (mean lag time 29.1 min). In the stage 5 twin, this episodic LH-T relationship persisted into wakefulness where the largest increments in T were seen just prior to sleep onset. Evidence of sleep-enhanced FSH release was more equivocal, and was limited mainly to pubertal stage 1 and 3 pairs. Similarities in hormonal patterns were seen within the monozygotic twin pairs and probably contributed to the parallel progress in puberty of the pair. Thus, sleep-wake rhythmicity in release of gonadotropins, particularly LH and thereby of testosterone, was seen to evolve transiently in twin boys across puberty. The existence of such rhythmicity suggests that a fundamental, sleep-entrained CNS mechanism plays an important, if not a dominant, role in sexual maturation in boys.
Adolescent↗
Reducing night waking in infancy: a primary care intervention.
Approximately 25% of infants wake regularly at night and need help in resettling. The purpose of this study was to implement and evaluate a brief intervention to prevent such night waking. The study used a prospective cohort design with historical controls. Information from the control group was collected at the 9-month visit. The intervention group was enrolled at the 4-month visit. The intervention consisted of information about sleep-onset associations, completion of a sleep chart, and discussion about sleep with the pediatrician. The outcome was also measured at the 9-month visit. To obscure the purpose of the study, the outcome questionnaire for both groups addressed feeding and sleeping. One hundred twenty-eight (74%) of 172 eligible infant-parent pairs comprised the control group and 164 (74%) of 222 the intervention group. The majority of families were white, married, and well-educated. The groups were similar with regard to sociodemographic variables and factors thought to be related to night waking such as current breast-feeding, thumb/pacifier sucking, maternal isolation, and parental perception of difficult child. At 9 months of age, the intervention infants were reported to experience 36% less night waking per week compared with those in the control group (2.5 vs 3.9 wakings per week, P = .02). Frequent night waking was twice as common in control infants (27% vs 14%, P = .01). It is concluded that this pediatric intervention can help parents reduce night waking in infants.
Cohort Studies↗
Neurotoxic lesion of the mesencephalic reticular formation and/or the posterior hypothalamus does not alter waking in the cat.
In order to re-evaluate the role of two putative waking systems, we injected a neural cell body toxin, ibotenic acid (IA) (45 micrograms/microliters), into the mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF) and/or the posterior hypothalamus (PH). On the one hand, when the cell body destruction was only restricted to the MRF, the IA microinjection was followed by a temporary high voltage and slow neocortical electroencephalogram (EEG) during the first 24 postoperative hours and by a subsequent long term increase in waking which lasted 8-12 h. After the first postoperative day, there were no motor disturbances, no aphagia nor adypsia, no alteration of cortical activation and no modification of thermoregulation or of the sleep-waking cycle. On the other hand, the IA microinjection into the PH induced a hypothermia during the first postoperative night and a dramatic transient hypersomnia immediately after the disappearance of the anesthesia (14-24 h after the IA injection). On the third day, all cats recovered control level of paradoxical sleep (PS), slow wave sleep (SWS) and cerebral temperature. They presented normal motor behavior but they were not able to eat by themselves during the first postoperative week. Finally, when the lesions of the MRF and the PH were realized in one single operation, the cats were first motionless in a comatose state for 2-3 days. This state was accompanied by a transitory hypothermia and the suppression of a spontaneous or evoked cortical low voltage fast activity. However, from the 2nd postoperative week, both behavioral and EEG waking re-occurred. By contrast, the two successive operations (MRF followed by PH) did not induce a comatose state. We did not observe any deficit in motor behavior, and the sleep-waking cycle was quite normal as from the second postlesion day. In the MRF-PH-lesioned cats, the injection of alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (150 mg/kg) induced a large decrease in waking and a moderate increase in PS. In the MRF-lesioned cats, IA produced a large area of cell body loss, centered in the MRF, that extended from levels A2 to A6 of stereotaxic planes and sometimes encroached upon the red nucleus and the substantia nigra. In the PH-lesioned cats, the histological analysis revealed a great loss of cell bodies in the PH extended from levels A8 to A12.5. The damage included the lateral and posterior hypothalamic areas and sometimes the tuberomamillary nucleus. In MRF- and PH-lesioned cats, the cell body loss extended from levels A2 to A12.5.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Animals↗
The action of lithium carbonate on the sleep-waking cycle in the cat.
The therapeutic effect of lithium carbonate on manic-depressive psychosis is now universally recognized. In view of this positive action on the cyclic endogenous manifestations, it was interesting to investigate the possible effects of lithium on the sleep-waking cycle in the cat. Polygraphic recording from three adults cats was carried out during 24 h periods before, and on different days after, beginning treatment with lithium carbonate. With low doses (30 and 50 mg/kg/day), important morphological changes were observed 5 days later while a new balance of the sleep-waking stages occurred. The EEG of each stage was characterized by slowing and amplitude increase of the different frequencies. The rhythms which appeared in long runs during quiet wakefulness and paradoxical sleep (PS) in the somaethetic cortex (mu rhythm) and the visual areas (alpha rhythm) were increased, slowed and almost continuously present. From the quantitative point of view, the percentage of time of deep slow wave sleep (DSWS) was increased from 38% to 55%. Conversely, the waking and PS times were both reduced, the latter from 18% to 10%. In contrast with human data, the mean duration of PS episodes was unchanged. Furthermore, lithium induced a slight dissociation between EEG activity and waking behaviour. With toxic dose (90 mg/kg/day) all the above changes were again observed, but more conspicuously. During wakefulness and SWS, bursts of generalized paroxysmal events appeared, in frequent association with a myoclonic jerk. SP became atypical and its percentage of time was drastically reduced.
Animals↗
Effects of zimeldine, a selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor, combined with ritanserin, a selective 5-HT2 antagonist, on waking and sleep stages in rats.
Sleep and waking in rats were studied 8 h following administration of a selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor (zimeldine), a selective 5-HT2 antagonist (ritanserin) and a combination of ritanserin and zimeldine. Consistent with earlier findings, zimeldine gave a biphasic effect on sleep and waking. Waking was increased the first 3 h, followed by an increase in deep slow wave sleep (SWS-2), maximal in hours 4 and 5. Ritanserin gave an increase in SWS-2 that was spread out over the recording period. Ritanserin + zimeldine also gave a biphasic effect as zimeldine did, and the initial increase in waking and the following increase in SWS-2 tended to be stronger. Thus, ritanserin did not block the initial waking effect seen after zimeldine administration, indicating that this waking effect was not due to 5-HT2 stimulation. The increase in SWS-2 seemed to reflect an addition of the increases following the zimeldine and ritanserin alone conditions. This suggests that the increase in SWS-2 seen after 5-HT reuptake inhibition and 5-HT2 blockade are independent phenomena. Zimeldine alone, ritanserin alone and the combination all gave a clear reduction of rapid eye movement sleep.
Animals↗
Interictal spiking during wakefulness and sleep and the localization of foci in temporal lobe epilepsy.
We examined variations in interictal spiking during sleep and wakefulness to assess differences in reliability for localizing epileptic foci. Forty patients were studied prospectively. Spikes were assessed for rates, field, and appearance of new foci. Final localization was determined by surgery, electrocorticography, and seizure onset. Comparison of interictal EEG foci with final localization was made. In 39 patients, slow-wave sleep activated spiking compared with wakefulness. Most patients showed maximal spiking in sleep stages 3 or 4. Restriction of field in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and wakefulness, and extension of field in slow-wave sleep occurred. New foci appeared in non-rapid eye movement sleep in 53% of patients. Similar but not identical spiking rates, foci, and field distributions were seen in wakefulness and REM sleep. All REM foci were unilateral. Our findings suggest that localization of the primary epileptogenic area is more reliable in REM sleep than in wakefulness, and in wakefulness more than in slow-wave sleep.
Action Potentials↗
[Acoustic evoked potentials of medium latency and intraoperative wakefulness during anesthesia maintenance using propofol, isoflurane and flunitrazepam/fentanyl].
Auditory evoked potentials have been used as an indicator of awareness. During combined local and general anesthesia clinical signs of adequate anesthesia are difficult to evaluate. In the present study we combined peridural analgesia with three techniques of general anesthesia. Intraoperative wakefulness was documented and correlated with cardiocirculatory parameters as well as with mid-latency auditory evoked potentials (MLAEP). METHODS. After institutional approval and informed consent 30 patients undergoing elective laparotomy were studied as follows: first, continuous peridural analgesia was instituted in all patients to block painful sensation of surgical stimuli and the anesthetic level was maintained at T5. Then general anesthesia was induced with propofol 2.5 mg/kg i.v. (group I, n = 10), thiopental 5 mg/kg i.v. (group II, n = 10), or etomidate 0.2 mg/kg i.v. (group III, n = 10) and maintained with propofol 3-5 mg/kg per hour i.v. (group I), isoflurane 0.4-0.8 vol.-% (group II), or flunitrazepam 0.005-0.01 mg/kg i.v. and fentanyl 0.0025-0.005 mg/kg i.v. bolus injections every 20-30 min (group III). Heart rate and arterial pressure were registered continuously. Purposeful movements of the limbs, eye-opening, or other movements as well as coughing were documented as signs of intraoperative wakefulness. AEP were recorded in the awake state, after induction, and during maintenance of general anesthesia. Latencies of the peaks V, Na, and Pa were measured. By fast-Fourier transformation corresponding power-spectra were calculated to analyze the energy content of the AEP frequency components. RESULTS. Intraoperative wakefulness occurred statistically significantly more often in the patients of group III than in those of groups I and II. There was no correlation between wakefulness and cardiocirculatory parameters. Latencies of peaks V, Na, and Pa in the awake patients were in the normal range; the corresponding power-spectra had their major energy content in the 30-40-Hz range. After induction of general anesthesia with propofol, thiopentone, and etomidate as well as during maintenance of general anesthesia with propofol and isoflurane peak latencies of Na and Pa increased, frequencies in the 30-40 Hz range became suppressed, and MLAEP energy maxima shifted to the low-frequency range. In contrast, during maintenance of general anesthesia with flunitrazepam/fentanyl peak latencies of Na and Pa returned to awake values and frequencies in the range of 30 Hz regained energy dominance in the corresponding power-spectra. CONCLUSIONS. The maintenance of MLAEP and the primary cortical complex Na/Pa correlates with the incidence of motor signs of wakefulness. During the combination of regional and general anesthesia, isoflurane and propofol seem to provide better suppression of intraoperative wakefulness than bolus injections of flunitrazepam/fentanyl.
Adult↗