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PubMed2026

Emerging food- and waterborne pathogen Arcobacter in wastewater: diversity and antibiotic resistance.

Arcobacter spp. are emerging food- and waterborne pathogens frequently detected in wastewater. Despite their high abundance in wastewater, Arcobacter diversity, antibiotic resistance, and genomic traits remain poorly characterized. To address these knowledge gaps, we conducted a comprehensive study of Arcobacter spp. in influent, effluent, and activated sludge from a Finnish wastewater treatment plant using full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing, isolate-based genomics, and phenotypic antibiotic susceptibility testing. Arcobacter spp. were highly abundant in raw sewage but substantially removed during treatment. Four Arcobacter species were identified, dominated by Arcobacter cryaerophilus and Arcobacter suis. A proportion of amplicon sequence variants unclassified to species-level revealed potentially unexplored Arcobacter diversity. For the first time, we observed intragenomic variability in 16S rRNA gene copies of A. cryaerophilus, highlighting the importance of integrating culture-based and culture-independent approaches. Phenotypic testing revealed high proportions of non-wild-type isolates for clinically relevant antibiotics, including ampicillin, cefotaxime, tetracycline, and erythromycin. Genomic analyses showed that antibiotic resistance profiles were primarily mediated by chromosomally encoded determinants, including β-lactamases, efflux systems, and point mutations. Additionally, a broad arsenal of chromosomal and plasmid-borne resistance genes to heavy metals, biocides, and organic solvents was detected, reflecting adaptations to the wastewater environment. These findings provide novel insights into Arcobacter species-level diversity, resistance mechanisms, and ecological adaptations in anthropogenically influenced environments. The study highlights the significance of Arcobacter for public health and establishes a foundation for further research.IMPORTANCEArcobacter spp. are emerging human and animal pathogens that exhibit increasing resistance to clinically relevant antibiotics. Most community-acquired infections are linked to exposure through contaminated food and water, yet studies investigating their occurrence and diversity in wastewater remain scarce. Here, we focus on wastewater as an abundant source of Arcobacter spp. and a potential dissemination route contributing to downstream contamination of surface waters, irrigated soils, and possibly the food chain. By characterizing the species-level diversity, genomic traits, and antibiotic resistance profiles of Arcobacter spp. in wastewater, this study provides critical insights into the ecology and epidemiology of this ubiquitous genus.

Arcobacter↗

PubMed2026

Agricultural sprinkler irrigation systems as environmental reservoirs and airborne dissemination sources of Legionella pneumophila.

Sprinkler irrigation systems are critical for modern agriculture but represent largely unrecognized aquatic environments capable of sustaining opportunistic human pathogens. Among them, Legionella pneumophila is of particular concern due to its ability to colonize engineered water systems, persist under fluctuating environmental conditions, and be transmitted through aerosols. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive microbiological and genomic investigation of irrigation ponds and ditches in a rural area of north-east Spain where two zones were sampled. Metagenomic profiling revealed highly diverse microbial communities encompassing more than 20,000 species, including 21 airborne-transmissible bacterial pathogens of clinical relevance. Notably, L. pneumophila was detected in both zones, with a relative abundance of up to 4.6 %. Culture-based isolation confirmed the presence of L. pneumophila serogroup 1, Pontiac group, Benidorm subgroup, sequence type 15. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated a close relationship between this environmental strain and clinical isolates obtained during a Legionnaires' disease outbreak occurred in 2015, which had remained without a confirmed environmental source. Meteorological data from the exposure period revealed wind conditions favouring long-distance aerosol dispersion from irrigated fields toward residential areas. Our findings provide evidence that irrigation infrastructures can act as environmental reservoirs and dissemination routes of L. pneumophila among other airborne pathogens. These results underscore the need to incorporate agricultural irrigation systems into routine environmental surveillance, outbreak investigations, and public health risk assessments.

Legionella pneumophila↗

PubMed1977

Epidemic diarrhea at Crater Lake from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. A large waterborne outbreak.

In June and July 1975, Gastrointestinal illness occurred in more than 200 staff members and 2000 visitors to an American national park. In was characterized by prolonged diarrhea, cramps, nausea, and vomiting, lasted a median duration of 8 days, and was significantly associated with consumption of park water (P less than 0.001), which had been contaminated by raw sewage. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli serotype 06:K15:H16 was isolated from 20 of 49 ill park residents and from the park's water supply, but not from 71 residents who had never been ill or had been well for at least 4 days. No other bacterial, viral, or parasitic pathogens were isolated from ill or well persons. This outbreak is the first waterborne epidemic of diarrheal illness shown to be due to enterotoxigenic. E. coli, and this study documents one mode of transmission of this pathogen. This investigation also suggests the relative insensitivity of current methods for identifying persons infected with this organism, either by the culturing of randomly selected isolates or by measuring serologic responses.

Diarrhea↗

PubMed1978

Viruses in water.

Attention is drawn in this paper to the increasing problem of viral contamination of water and shellfish, particularly since growing demands for available water resources by a rising world population and expanding industry will make the recycling of wastewater almost inevitable in the future. The problem of eliminating viruses pathogenic for man from water is considered in the light of present water treatment procedures, which are often inadequate for that purpose. Man may be exposed to waterborne viruses through the consumption of contaminated water, shellfish, or crops, as a result of recreational activities involving water, or from aerosols following the spraying of crops with liquid wastes. Physical and chemical methods of eliminating viruses from water are discussed.

Humans↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Waterborne gastrointestinal illness at a ski resort. --Isolation of Yersinia enterocolitica from drinking water--.

Approximately 41 percent of the visitors and employees who were at a ski resort in Montana between December 23, 1974, and January 17, 1975, became ill with diarrhea and other gastrointestinal symptoms. The association between illness and water consumption proved to be significant, and the previously noncontaminated water supply was found to contain coliforms. No pathogens except Yersinia enterocolitica were isolated, and it was isolated from two wells serving the area. The role of Y. enterocolitica in this outbreak is not clear, but it was the only organism isolated that is known to be pathogenic.

Adult↗

PubMed2026

Systematic review of microorganism disinfection performance by chemical and ultraviolet light water treatment methods.

Safe drinking water is critical for public health, yet microbial contamination remains a significant global challenge. We conducted a systematic review to update World Health Organization guidance on water disinfection technologies by synthesizing peer-reviewed literature from 1997 to 2021 on the performance of free chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and ultraviolet (UV) light against bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Following PRISMA guidelines, we analyzed log10 reduction values (LRVs) and contact times (Ct) or fluence (for UV) from laboratory and field studies. We included studies from multiple databases and expert-recommended studies. Results show mean Cts for 2 LRV of non-opportunistic bacteria as 6.0 (free chlorine), 0.4 (chlorine dioxide), and 1.2 (ozone) mg/L*min, and a mean UV fluence of 8.2 mJ/cm² (all bacteria). Viruses required lower Cts, except for UV-resistant adenoviruses, while protozoa required higher Cts or fluences. Opportunistic bacteria required significantly higher Cts than non-opportunistic bacteria for free chlorine and chlorine dioxide. Temperature and pH effects were inconsistent, highlighting data variability and gaps in field studies. These findings support global guidance on water treatment and may be used alongside other context-specific data to understand the roles these technologies play in reducing waterborne exposures. We recommend standardized reporting from performance studies to enable straightforward synthesis of evidence.

Disinfection↗

PubMed1979

A waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis with secondary person-to-person spread. Association with a viral agent.

In December, 1976, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred at a resort camp in Colorado. Data obtained by questionnaire from 760 persons indicated that 418 (55%) had had gastroenteritis at the camp or within a week of leaving it, with peak onset within a two-day period. Symptoms included vomiting (81%), diarrhoea (65%), and fever (49%); median duration of illness was twenty-four hours. The attack-rate increased with consumption of water or ice-containing beverages. The camp water supply was found to be inadequately chlorinated and contaminated by a leaking septic tank. Although routine laboratory tests did not reveal bacterial, viral, or parasitic pathogens, immune electron microscopy detected virus-like particles in two of five diarrhoeal stool filtrates. Oral administration of one of these bacteria-free filtrates to two volunteers induced a gastrointestinal illness similar to that observed in the camp visitors.

Camping↗

PubMed1992

Hepatitis E virus (HEV): strain variation in the nonstructural gene region encoding consensus motifs for an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and an ATP/GTP binding site.

Hepatitis is transmitted by a number of infectious agents. The epidemiological characterization of waterborne or enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis (ET-NANBH) is unique when compared with other known hepatitides. We have reported on the molecular cloning of a cDNA clone derived from the etiologic agent associated with ET-NANBH, the hepatitis E virus (HEV). The complete sequence of these first molecular clones, isolated from an HEV-infected human after passage in Macaca fascicularis (cynomolgus macaques), illustrates a distant relationship to other known positive-strand RNA viruses of plants and animals. The translated major open reading frame (ORF-1) from these clones indicates that this portion of the genome encodes a polyprotein with consensus sequences found in RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and ATP/GTP binding domains. The latter activity has been associated with putative helicases of positive-strand RNA viruses. These viral-encoded enzymatic activities identify this region and ORF-1 as containing at least two different nonstructural genes involved in HEV replication. Molecular clones obtained from two other geographically distinct HEV isolates demonstrated sequence heterogeneity in this nonstructural gene region. Further study will be required to elucidate the pathogenic significance (if any) of this observed divergence in the nonstructural region.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗