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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2007

Changes in net ecosystem productivity with forest age following clearcutting of a coastal Douglas-fir forest: testing a mathematical model with eddy covariance measurements along a forest chronosequence.

We hypothesized that changes in net ecosystem productivity (NEP) during aging of coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii Mirb. Franco) stands could be explained by (1) changing nutrient uptake caused by different time scales for decomposition of fine, non-woody and coarse woody litter left after harvesting, (2) declines in canopy water status with lengthening of the water uptake pathway during bole and branch growth, and (3) increases in the ratio of autotrophic respiration (R (a)) to gross primary productivity (GPP) with phytomass accumulation. These hypotheses were implemented and tested in the mathematical model ecosys against eddy covariance (EC) measurements of forest CO(2) and energy exchange in a post-clearcut Douglas-fir chronosequence. Hypothesis 1 explained how (a) an initial rise in GPP observed during the first 3 years after clearcutting could be caused by nutrient mineralization from rapid decomposition of fine, non-woody litter with lower C:N ratios (assart effect), (b) a slower rise in GPP during the next 20 years could be caused by immobilization during later decomposition of coarse woody litter, and (c) a rapid rise in GPP between 20 and 40 years after clearcutting could be caused by nutrient mineralization with further decomposition of coarse woody litter and of its decomposition products. During periods (a) and (b), heterotrophic respiration (R (h)) from decomposition of fine and coarse litter greatly exceeded net primary productivity (NPP = GPP - R (a)) so that Douglas-fir stands were large sources of CO(2). During period (c), NPP exceeded R (h) so that these stands became large sinks for CO(2). Hypothesis 2 explained how declines in NPP during later growth in period (c) could be caused by lower hydraulic conductances in taller trees that would force lower canopy water potentials and hence greater sensitivity of stomatal conductances and CO(2) uptake to vapor pressure deficits. Enhanced sensitivity to vapor pressure deficits was also apparent in the EC measurements over the post-clearcut chronosequence. Hypothesis 3 did not contribute to the explanation of forest age effects on NEP.

Abies↗
PubMed2006

[Physiological-ecological effects of Populus davidiana--Quercus liaotungensis mixed forest in Ziwuling forest area].

This paper studied the soil physical- properties under Populus davidiana, Quercus liaotungensis, and Populus davidiana--Quercus liaotungensis mixed forest in the Ziwuling forest area of Loess Plateau, and the leaf photosysthetic characteristics of these three types of forests. The results showed that soil moisture content in 0 - 300 cm layer was the highest under P. davidiana forest, and obviously increased below 200 cm in depth under P. davidiana--Q. liaotungensis mixed forest, which was 10.5% - 19.76% higher than that under Q. liaotungensis forest. In 0 - 60 cm layer, P. davidiana forest showed the highest soil bulk density and the lowest soil porosity, while P. davidiana--Q. liaotungensis mixed forest presented the lowest soil bulk density and the highest soil porosity, and both of these indices surpassed their corresponding values under pure forests, which indicated that the mixed forest could make effective use of water in deep soil, and obviously improved soil physical and chemical properties. P. davidiana and Q. liaotungensis had a higher content of leaf chlorophyll than P. davidiana--Q. liaotungensis mixed forest, and Q. liaotungensis presented the highest leaf chlorophyll content. Q. liaotungensis had the highest photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance, followed by P. davidiana, and by P. davidiana--Q. liaotungensis mixed forest. The water use efficiency of the forests ranked in the decreasing order of Q. liaotungensis in pure forest, Q. liaotungensis in mixed forest, P. davidiana in mixed forest, and P. davidiana in pure forest. Q. liaotungensis in mixed forest presented the highest F(v)/F(m) and F(v)/F(o), and did not remarkably differ from those in pure forest, but in the mixed forest, the F(v)/F(m) and F(v)/F(o) of P. davidiana were markedly lower than those of P. davidiana in pure forest. Both the q(p) and NPQ of P. davidiana and Q. liaotungensis in pure forests were higher than those in mixed forest, respectively. In Ziwuling forest area, Q. liaotungensis in Q. liaotungensis--dominant climax community tended to be more stable, and grew better than Q. liaotungensis in P. davidiana--Q. liaotungensis mixed forest, and P. davidiana would be gradually replaced. Compared with P. davidiana in pure forest, P. davidiana in its mixed forest was at a disadvantage in its growth.

China↗
PubMed2003

Protected forests in Europe approaches-harmonising the definitions for international comparison and forest policy making.

Comparison of forest protection between regions in Europe is extremely difficult, because there is such wide variation of strategies, procedures and constraints; the way forests have been used historically and their present closeness to nature also varies, and furthermore so does the definition of what constitutes a forest. For the European Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) in 2003, forest protection has been harmonised into three categories for the sake of comparison: protection to safeguard biodiversity, protection of landscape and specific natural features, and protective forest functions. There is no single, uniform and universal model and no internationally agreed target with respect to the percentage of forests which should be protected. What is more important than a fixed percentage level of forested area (e.g. 5 or 10%) is that the protection network should be biogeographically and ecologically representative and accordingly distributed on a regional basis. Long-term practical experience and research have proved that conservation of different species of organisms can be assured by appropriate silvicultural management of multifunctional production forests. Consequently, the focus of debate in Europe appears to shift more and more from total protection in segregated areas to 'precision protection' and to combining protection and timber production in the holistic, integrated concept of modern management of forest areas.Advances in regional ecological planning and the growing adoption of naturalistic forest management practices have slowed the decline of the biological diversity in the multifunctional production forests. However, this fact is not yet widely and sufficiently acknowledged and appreciated. There is consequently a political and scientific need for continued study of the effects of naturalistic silvicultural management on the biodiversity of forests. Information from such research is crucially needed before new and additional protection networks and schemes are set up on a large-scale. Protection by voluntary contracts between parties is a workable model concept for European forestry based on private forest ownership. In small private forests, patches of forest worth protecting are often small and located within production forests. Forest certification can contribute to the efforts of maintaining biodiversity in multifunctional production forests and offers an instrument of independently monitoring and verifying that forests are managed according to the agreed criteria. Forest certification is not an alternative or a means of increasing forest protection, because as a voluntary process it cannot guarantee the permanence of protected areas or deal with issues of finance and compensation.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed2003

[Light environment characteristics of forest gap in deciduous broad-leaved forest and its effects on growth features of Gynostemma pentaphyllum in Jianghuai watershed].

The daily total light intensity, various wave band light intensities, spectrum composition, and the growth characteristics and total saponia content of Gynostemma pentaphyllum in forest gap and under forest were studied in deciduous forest (Liquidambar formosana) in Jianghuai watershed. The results showed that the intensities of full wavelength daily total light, blue light(400-510 nm), yellow-green light(510-610 nm), red-orange light (610-720 nm) and near-infrared light(720-1100 nm) in forest gap were higher than those under forest. The intensities and spectra compositions of blue light and red-orange light in forest gaps were significantly higher than those under forest. Additionally, the differences between those in forest gap and under forest varied seasonally. The relative intensity of blue light in April, July and October in forest gap was 8.32%-28.83%, 30.00%-579.17% and 6.70%-88.74% more than those under forest, respectively, and that of red-orange light in April, July and October in forest gap was 8.72%-28.83%, 30.19%-502.69%, 6.76%-91.57% more than those under forest, respectively. The spectrum composition of blue light in forest gap in these 3 months was 5.76%, 33.14% and 17.29% higher than those under forest, respectively, and that of red-orange light in forest gap in these 3 months was 5.04%, 53.34% and 10.23% higher than those under forest, respectively. The net photosynthetic rate, total dry-matter weight, and total saponia content of Gynostemma pentaphyllum growing in forest gap were higher than those under forest. Gynostemma pentaphyllum growing in forest gap had more dry-matter distributed in stem. The results could be available to utilize the light environment of deciduous broad-leaved forest and further building comprehensive management model of Gynostemma pentaphyllum in Jianghuai watershed zone.

Environment↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Energy and CO(2) flux densities above and below a temperate broad-leaved forest and a boreal pine forest.

Fluxes of carbon dioxide, water vapor and energy were measured above and below a temperate broad-leaved forest and a boreal jack pine (Pinus banksiania Lamb.) forest by the eddy covariance method. The aim of the work was to examine differences between the biological and physical processes that control the fluxes of mass and energy over these disparate forest stand types. Carbon and latent heat flux (LE) densities over the temperate broad-leaved forest were about three times larger than those observed over the boreal forest. Available energy was the key variable modulating LE over the temperate broad-leaved forest, whereas LE over the boreal jack pine stand was sensitive to variations in water vapor pressure deficits (VPDs) and available energy. It was also noted that VPDs had different impacts on transpiration rates of the two forest stands. Increasing VPDs forced a negative feedback on jack pine transpiration, whereas transpiration rates of the well-watered broad-leaved forest responded favorably to increasing VPDs. Carbon dioxide flux densities over the broad-leaved forest stand were more sensitive to changes in absorbed photosynthetic photon flux density than those over the boreal forest. The efficiency of CO(2) uptake over the jack pine stand was reduced, in part, because the low leaf area of the stand caused a sizable fraction of available quanta to be absorbed by nonphotosynthetic organs, such as limbs and trunks. Over both forest stands, variations in photosynthetic photon flux density of photosynthetically active radiation (Q(P)) explained only 50 to 60% of the variance of CO(2) exchange rates. Consequently, caution should be exercised when scaling carbon fluxes to regional scales based on unmodified, satellite-derived indices. The more open nature of the boreal jack pine forest caused water vapor, CO(2) and heat fluxes at the forest floor to be a significant component of whole canopy mass and energy exchange rates. About 20 to 30% of net canopy mass and energy exchange occurred at the forest floor. Much smaller rates of mass and energy exchange occurred under the temperate broad-leaved forest.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2004

[Utilization suitability of forest resources in typical forest zone of Changbai Mountains].

Conservation of natural forest does not simply equal to no logging. The Northeast China Forest Region has a logging quota of mature forest as part of natural forest conservation project. How to determine the logging spots rationally and scientifically is very important. Recent scientific theories of forest resources management advocate that the utilization of forest resources should stick to the principle of sustaining use, and pay attention to the ecological function of forest resources. According to the logging standards, RS and GIS techniques can be used to detect the precise location of forest resources and obtain information of forest areas and types, and thus, provide more rational and scientific support for space choice about future utilization of forest resources. In this paper, the Lushuihe Forest Bureau was selected as a typical case in Changbai Mountains Forest Region to assess the utilization conditions of forest resources, and some advices on spatial choice for future management of forest resources in the study area were offered.

China↗
PubMed2006

Increase in carbon emissions from forest fires after intensive reforestation and forest management programs.

This paper shows an example of substantial increase in carbon emissions from forest fires after reforestation on a national scale. It is the first estimation of historical carbon emissions from forest fires in Korea during the last 40 years. Investigation was focused on the recent increase in large forest fires and its closely related factors. A simple modeling approach to estimate carbon emission was applied. The direct carbon emission from forest fires in 2000, ranging from 115 to 300 Gg C, corresponds to 1-3% of the annual carbon uptake by forests. The influence of forest fires on the carbon cycle in Korea is not so significant, but Korean forests have a large potential for generating severe local fires due to increasing forest carbon density and a high forest area ratio (forest area/total land area) of 65%. The carbon emission per area burned (Mg C ha(-1)) clearly reflects the trend toward increases in the number of severe fires. Statistical analyses and the trends of annual temperature and precipitation show that the recent large increase in carbon emissions may be the negative consequences of intensive forest regrowth that is the product of successful reforestation and forest management programs rather than the effect of climate change. These results imply a need for further studies in other countries, where large-scale plantation has been conducted, to evaluate the role of plantation and forest fires on the global carbon cycle.

Carbon↗
PubMed2004

Constraints to seedling success of savanna and forest trees across the savanna-forest boundary.

Tropical savannas and closed forests are characterized by distinct tree communities, with most species occurring almost exclusively in only one of the two environments. The ecology of these two groups of species will largely determine the structure and dynamics of the savanna-forest boundary, but little is known about the ecological and physiological differences that might control their distributions. We performed field and nursery experiments to compare seedling establishment success, predawn leaf water potential, biomass allocation, and root carbohydrate concentration of congeneric species, each composed of one savanna species and one forest species. Seedling establishment of savanna and forest species responded differently to vegetation cover, with forest species having lowest establishment success in the open savanna and savanna species having lowest success in forest. Subsequent survival followed similar patterns, resulting in even greater differences in cumulative success. The low survival of forest species in the savanna appears related to drought stress, as seedlings of forest species had lower predawn leaf water potential than savanna species. Seedlings of savanna species had greater root: shoot ratios and root total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) concentration, particularly among evergreen genera. Among evergreen genera, root TNC per shoot mass, which may largely determine resprout capacity, was seven times higher in savanna species than forest species. Although water availability and microclimate may reduce the success of forest species, these factors appear unable to completely exclude forest seedling establishment in savanna. Fire, on the other hand, appears to be a much more absolute constraint to success of forest species in savanna.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2006

Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity.

Amid widespread reports of deforestation, some nations have nevertheless experienced transitions from deforestation to reforestation. In a causal relationship, the Forest Identity relates the carbon sequestered in forests to the changing variables of national or regional forest area, growing stock density per area, biomass per growing stock volume, and carbon concentration in the biomass. It quantifies the sources of change of a nation's forests. The Identity also logically relates the quantitative impact on forest expanse of shifting timber harvest to regions and plantations where density grows faster. Among 50 nations with extensive forests reported in the Food and Agriculture Organization's comprehensive Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, no nation where annual per capita gross domestic product exceeded 4,600 dollars had a negative rate of growing stock change. Using the Forest Identity and national data from the Assessment report, a single synoptic chart arrays the 50 nations with coordinates of the rates of change of basic variables, reveals both clusters of nations and outliers, and suggests trends in returning forests and their attributes. The Forest Identity also could serve as a tool for setting forest goals and illuminating how national policies accelerate or retard the forest transitions that are diffusing among nations.

Americas↗
PubMed2004

[Landscape pattern variation of forest resources in typical forest zone of Changbai Mountains].

Based on GIS and RS data of 1985 and 1999 and the ground information from Lushuihe Forest Bureau, this paper studied the forest landscape pattern and its changes in typical forest zone of Changbai Mountains. According to the standard variance of patch areas in 1985 and 1999, the patch area distribution of mature conifer forest, mature broad-leaved forest, middle-aged conifer forest, and middle-aged broad-leaved forest was less symmetrical, showing that these land covers had landscape diversity and species diversity. According to landscape similarity index, the mature conifer forest, mature broad-leaved forest, middle-aged conifer forest and middle-aged broad-leaved forest, which were relatively stable than other land covers, made the majority of the landscape in the study area. According to patch density, the porosity of wetland was high in 1985 and 1999, indicating that wetland had little homogenization and formed more mosaics. The fragmentation extent of farming land, due to multiple cultivating types, azimuths and shapes, was high in both phases. Attributing greatly to anthropogenic factors, the fragmentation extent of wetland was high all along. In brief, the forest landscape pattern was changed greatly in the studied phases, and human activities affected heavily on it.

Biodiversity↗
PubMed1998

Air pollution, forest condition and forest decline in Southern Europe: an overview.

Over the last decades much of the work on the impact of air pollution on forests in Europe has concentrated on central and northern countries. The southern part of Europe has received far less attention, although air pollutants-especially the photochemical ones-can reach concentrations likely to have adverse effects on forest vegetation. Although international forest condition surveys present serious problems where data consistency is concerned, they reveal considerable year-by-year species-specific fluctuations rather than a large-scale forest decline. Cases of obvious decline related to environmental factors are well circumscribed: (1) the deterioration of some coastal forests due to the action of polluted seaspray; (2) the deterioration of reforestation projects, especially conifers, mainly due to the poor ecological compatibility between species and site; and (3) the decline of deciduous oaks in southern Italy and of evergreen oaks in the Iberian peninsula apparently due to the interaction of climate stresses and pests and diseases. However, besides obvious deterioration, changes in environmental factors can provoke situations of more subtle stress. The most sensitive stands are Mediterranean conifer forests and mesophile forests of the Mediterranean-montane plane growing at the edges of the natural ecological distribution. Evergreen sclerophyllous forests appear less sensitive to variations in climatic parameters, since they can adapt quite well to both drought and the action of UV-B rays. Several experiments were carried out to test the sensitivity of Mediterranean forest species to air pollutants. Most of those experiments used seedlings of different species treated with pollutant concentrations too high to be realistic, so it is difficult to derive adequate information on the response of adult trees in field conditions. Ozone has been proved to cause foliar injury in a variety of native forest species in different Southern European countries, while the effects of other pollutants (e.g. nitrogen, sulphur, acidic deposition) are less obvious and likely to be very localized. In the case of ozone, visible symptoms were almost completely missed by large-scale surveys and-at the same time-non-visible symptoms are suspected to be even more widespread than the visible ones. Owing to this and to the complex relationships existing between species sensitivity, ozone exposure and doses, length of the vegetative periods, influence of climatic and edaphic condition on the tree's response, the impacted areas are yet to be identified. Therefore, the large-scale impact of air pollutants on the forests of Southern Europe remains largely unknown, until more specific investigations are carried out.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Forest certification--an instrument to promote sustainable forest management?

Forest certification was introduced in the early 1990s to address concerns of deforestation and forest degradation and to promote the maintenance of biological diversity, especially in the tropics. Initially pushed by environmental groups, it quickly evolved as a potential instrument to promote sustainable forest management (SFM). To date about 124 million ha or 3.2% of the world's forests have been certified by the different certification schemes created over the last decade. Forest certification shares the aim of promoting SFM with another tool, namely criteria and indicators (C&I) for SFM. C&I sets are mainly developed for the national level to describe and monitor status and trends in forests and forest management. They also provide an essential reference basis for forest certification standards, which set performance targets to be applied on a defined area. Progress in developing these two different tools has been significant. After 10 years of implementation, it is evident that the original intention to save tropical biodiversity through certification has largely failed to date. Most of certified areas are in the temperate and boreal zone, with Europe as the most important region. Only around ten per cent is located in tropical countries. The standards used for issuing certificates upon compliance are diverse, both between certification schemes and within one and the same scheme when applied in different regions. However, they are at least equal to legal requirements and often include elements that set actually higher standards. While the quality of actual audits of the standards is of varying quality, there are indications that independent audits are an incentive for improving forest management. As a voluntary market-based tool, forest certification is depending on the ability to cover the costs incurred and thus on often-elusive green consumer sentiment. Regardless of many difficulties, forest certification has been very successful in raising awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic SFM concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. It also provides a tool for a range of other applications than assessment of sustainability, such as e.g. verifying carbon sinks.

Certification↗
PubMed2001

[Effect of forest patch size and isolation on reproductive success of Great Tit in fragmented secondary-forests].

The effect of forest patch size and isolation on reproductive success of Great Tit (Parus major) in fragmented secondary-forests was studied in Zuojia Natural Protection Area of Jilin Province by collecting data on breeding success, clutch-size, laying date, egg weight, brood-size and number fledged of Great Tit in 18 large (20-30 hm2), medium (10-20 hm2), and small (6-10 hm2) patches, and two extensive forests (> 100 hm2). All the forest patches were GPS tested. The results showed that isolation had no effect on reproductive success of Great Tit, and Great Tit laid 7.2 days earlier in extensive forests than in all forest patches. Clutches in extensive forests and large forest patches were slightly larger than those in medium and small forest patches, and eggs were heavier in extensive forests than in the patches. Patch size had no effect on brood-size and number fledged. The lost rate of the nests was high in medium and small forest patches because of intense competition.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest trees and forest ecosystems: knowledge gaps.

Atmospheric CO(2) is rising rapidly, and options for slowing the CO(2) rise are politically charged as they largely require reductions in industrial CO(2) emissions for most developed countries. As forests cover some 43% of the Earth's surface, account for some 70% of terrestrial net primary production (NPP), and are being bartered for carbon mitigation, it is critically important that we continue to reduce the uncertainties about the impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest tree growth, productivity, and forest ecosystem function. In this paper, I review knowledge gaps and research needs on the effects of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest above- and below-ground growth and productivity, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, water relations, wood quality, phenology, community dynamics and biodiversity, antioxidants and stress tolerance, interactions with air pollutants, heterotrophic interactions, and ecosystem functioning. Finally, I discuss research needs regarding modeling of the impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forests.Even though there has been a tremendous amount of research done with elevated CO(2) and forest trees, it remains difficult to predict future forest growth and productivity under elevated atmospheric CO(2). Likewise, it is not easy to predict how forest ecosystem processes will respond to enriched CO(2). The more we study the impacts of increasing CO(2), the more we realize that tree and forest responses are yet largely uncertain due to differences in responsiveness by species, genotype, and functional group, and the complex interactions of elevated atmospheric CO(2) with soil fertility, drought, pests, and co-occurring atmospheric pollutants such as nitrogen deposition and O(3). Furthermore, it is impossible to predict ecosystem-level responses based on short-term studies of young trees grown without interacting stresses and in small spaces without the element of competition. Long-term studies using free-air CO(2) enrichment (FACE) technologies or forest stands around natural CO(2) vents are needed to increase the knowledge base on forest ecosystem responses to elevated atmospheric CO(2). In addition, new experimental protocols need to continue to be developed that will allow for mature trees to be examined in natural ecosystems. These studies should be closely linked to modeling efforts so that the inference capacity from these expensive and long-term studies can be maximized.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2002

Forest area in Costa Rica: a comparative study of tropical forest cover estimates over time.

Forest area figures. at a given point in time and for a given region of interest, differ considerably, affecting the calculation of deforestation rates and thus confuse the political and scientific discussion on the state and change of the resource forest. This article discusses the variation of published forest cover figures, using Costa Rica as an example. A list of published figures on the forest cover of Costa Rica from 1940 onwards is analyzed. Reasons for the differences are hypothesized and discussed. These differences are mainly in the definition of forest and forest classes included, in the type of the studies conducted (mapping and/or sampling), in the precision of the estimates, and in the information sources used. It is concluded that part of the problem is inherent in the nature of the resource 'forest'. Quality and completeness of the presentation of the forest cover estimates are a clue to their correct understanding and interpretation. The latter point being especially relevant, as forest cover data have both a technical-scientific and a political meaning and are used as relevant arguments in many discussions. In the example of Costa Rica, a general downward trend is observed up to about 1985/1990, whereas after that forest area figures are on the average at a markedly higher level. Some hypotheses for this change in the trend are discussed.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed2005

[Forest landscape restoration and its affecting factors in burned area of northern Great Xing'an Mountains--taking forest coverage as an example].

Forest landscape restoration has been an attractive issue since the catastrophic fire took place on the northern slope of Great Xing'an Mountains in 1987. Based on the China forest inventory data and employing Kendall Bivariate and Distances Correlation Analyses, an investigation was made to search for what changes of the forest coverage pattern being happened in this area during the past 13 years after fire, and how the fire severity, foster type and terrain factors influenced the restoration of forest coverage. The results showed that the forest coverage in 2000 changed a lot, in comparing with that in 1987 before fire. The percentage of non-stocked land area and coverage grade declined markedly, with lower coverage grade increased. Among all test factors, fire severity which was inversely correlated with forest coverage grade was the key one. Though the regeneration measures didn't markedly affect forest coverage restoration within a short period, they might shorten the cycle of forest succession and promote the productivity of coniferous forest in the future. Among three terrain factors, slope was the strongest one affecting forest coverage, followed by position and aspect.

Biodiversity↗
PubMed2000

Valuation of consumption and sale of forest goods from a Central American rain forest

Researchers recognize that society needs accurate and comprehensive estimates of the economic value of rain forests to assess conservation and management options. Valuation of forests can help us to decide whether to implement policies that reconcile the value different groups attach to forests. Here we have measured the value of the rain forest to local populations by monitoring the foods, construction and craft materials, and medicines consumed or sold from the forest by 32 Indian households in two villages in Honduras over 2.5 years. We have directly measured the detailed, comprehensive consumption patterns of rain forest products by an indigenous population and the value of that consumption in local markets. The combined value of consumption and sale of forest goods ranged from US$17.79 to US$23.72 per hectare per year, at the lower end of previous estimates (between US$49 and US$1,089 (mean US$347) per hectare per year). Although outsiders value the rain forest for its high-use and non-use values, local people receive a small share of the total value. Unless rural people are paid for the non-local values of rain forests, they may be easily persuaded to deforest.

Journal Article↗