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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2026

Systematic identification pepper CaE2F transcription factor reveals the role of CaDPb in drought stress response.

The EARLY 2 FACTOR (E2F) transcription factor (TF) family plays a pivotal role in regulating plant development and adaptations to environmental stresses. However, the physiological function of E2Fs in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) are not well elucidated. In this work, we conduct a comprehensive genome-wide annotation of the E2F family within the Zunla-1 pepper genome and further explore the biological roles of CaDPb in response to drought stress. Through systematic bioinformatics analysis, we identify a total of nine CaE2F genes within the Zunla-1 genome, categorizing them into three distinct subgroups. Additionally, we discover multiple cis-regulatory elements in the CaE2F promoter regions associated with responses to plant hormones and drought stress. Public RNA-seq datasets reveal distinct expression profiles of CaE2F genes across various pepper tissues and their responses to environmental stimuli and plant hormones. Subsequently, the CaDPb gene is further functionally verified in drought response. Our findings indicate that TRV2:CaDPb silenced pepper plants are more sensitivity to drought. Furthermore, we show that CaDPb participates in the regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, the expression of drought-responsive genes, and the modulation of stomatal aperture. Taken together, our findings provide a comprehensive characterization of E2F genes in pepper and offer insights into the biological function of CaDPb in pepper drought stress response.

Capsicum↗

PubMed2026

Genome-wide identification of CHY zinc finger and RING finger (CHYR) genes in pepper and functional characterization of CaCHYR5 in response to Phytophthora capsici infection.

CHY zinc finger and RING finger (CHYR) proteins play crucial roles in the growth and development, as well as stress response. To date, no systematic or comprehensive analysis of the CHYR gene family has been performed in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). In this study, we identified 8 CaCHYR genes (CaCHYR1-CaCHYR8), which were classified into 3 groups based on phylogenetic relationships. CaCHYR members within the same group exhibited similar distributions of conserved motifs and exon-intron structures. Chromosomal localization analysis showed that 8 CaCHYR genes were unevenly distributed on 6 chromosomes. Segmental duplication, rather than tandem duplication, was found to be the major contributor to the expansion of this gene family. CaCHYR genes feature a variety of cis-elements involved in developmental processes, phytohormone responses, and stress adaptation. Expression analysis based on RNA-seq data revealed that CaCHYR genes exhibited distinct spatial expression patterns across different tissues and in response to Phytophthora capsici infection (PCI), and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) further confirmed that three of them (CaCHYR2, CaCHYR3, and CaCHYR5) exhibited altered expression under PCI. Furthermore, transient overexpression of CaCHYR5 in pepper leaves increased susceptibility to PCI, suggesting its potential negative regulatory role in pepper defense against P. capsici. Collectively, these findings reveal the expression patterns and regulatory functions of pepper CHYR genes in growth and development, laying a groundwork for breeding pepper cultivars tolerant to PCI.

Phytophthora capsici infection (PCI)↗

PubMed2026

The journey of fluxapyroxad, mandipropamid and mefentrifluconazole residues in two morphologically distinct chilli peppers: A comprehensive risk assessment from field to processing.

Understanding the residue fate of novel pesticides in crops is crucial for ensuring their safe application and safeguarding public health. This study examined the dissipation, processing factors (PFs), and risk assessment of fluxapyroxad, mandipropamid, and mefentrifluconazole in two morphologically distinct varieties of chilli peppers from field to processing. The half-lives of the three pesticides ranged from 5.42 to 10.05 days, following first-order kinetics. The initial residues were higher in Chaotian chilli peppers (CCP) than in long green chilli peppers (GCP). However, dissipation occurred more rapidly in CCP. Washing notably reduced the residues (PF: 0.60-0.89), whereas sun drying and oven drying concentrated them (PF: 1.92-3.74), with oven drying leading to greater concentrations. Both chronic and acute dietary risk assessments suggested acceptable risk levels for the general population. This study offers reliable guidance for the rational application of these three pesticides in chilli pepper cultivation.

Capsicum↗

PubMed2026

Light regulates capsaicinoid biosynthesis via the CaHY5-CaBBX2-CaACS8 module in pepper.

Capsaicinoids are a class of unique alkaloids that confer the pungent taste to pepper fruits. However, it remains largely unknown how light regulates the biosynthesis of capsaicinoids. We conducted a metabolic analysis on light- and dark-adapted pepper fruits. The results showed that dark-adapted pepper fruits had lower capsaicinoid contents and correspondingly downregulated transcription of capsaicinoid biosynthetic genes (CBGs), indicating that light plays a crucial role in capsaicinoid biosynthesis. Furthermore, silencing of CaHY5, a pivotal transcription factor gene in the light signaling pathway, decreased the content of capsaicinoid and suppressed the expression of CBGs, whereas transient overexpression of CaHY5 generated exactly opposite results. CaHY5 can bind to the G-box motif in the promoters of CaBBX2 and CaACS8, thereby enhancing their transcriptional levels. The activated CaBBX2 then binds to the T/G-box in the CaACS8 promoter to stimulate its expression. CaBBX2 or CaACS8 silencing led to decreased levels of capsaicinoids, while their transient overexpression produced increased capsaicinoid contents. Collectively, our results indicated that the light-activated CaHY5-CaBBX2-CaACS8 regulatory module plays a pivotal role in capsaicinoid biosynthesis. These findings provide new insights into the influence of light on capsaicinoid biosynthesis and potential targets for activation of this biosynthetic pathway in pepper.

Capsicum↗

PubMed2026

CaMYB121-CaABF2 negative feedback loop modulates CaNHX2 expression to confer salt tolerance in pepper.

Salt stress is a major abiotic factor that severely restricts pepper (Capsicum annuum) production. Although abscisic acid (ABA) is vital for salt tolerance, the transcriptional regulatory networks governing ABA-mediated salt defense remain largely unknown. Here, we uncovered a negative feedback loop between CaMYB121 and CaABF2.1/2 that modulates the expression of CaNHX2.1/2/3, thereby enhancing salt tolerance in pepper plants. RNA-seq analysis revealed that CaMYB121 displayed an expression pattern consistent with that of CaNHX2 after salt treatment. Silencing CaMYB121 markedly reduced salt tolerance and inhibited root growth. Mechanistically, CaMYB121 directly binds to the CaNHX2 promoter to activate transcription, thereby promoting salt resilience. Salt stress also robustly triggered ABA signaling genes, with CaABF2.1/2 displaying expression patterns closely mirroring those of CaMYB121. Transient silencing of CaABF2.1/2 results in phenotypes similar to those observed with CaMYB121 suppression. Notably, CaMYB121 activates CaABF2.1/2 transcription by binding to its promoters, whereas CaABF2.1/2 represses CaMYB121 expression by directly targeting its promoter, forming a self-regulating feedback loop that prevents excessive defense activation. Collectively, our findings reveal a CaMYB121-CaABF2 feedback circuit that dynamically balances growth and defense to optimize salt tolerance in pepper plants.

Salt Tolerance↗

PubMed2025

Genome-Wide Identification, Phylogenetic Analysis, and Expression Pattern of Polyamine Biosynthesis Gene Family in Pepper.

Polyamines (PAs), including putrescine, spermidine, spermine, and thermospermine, play essential roles in plant growth, development, and responses to stress. However, the structure and function of PA biosynthetic genes in pepper remain poorly characterized. This study aimed to identify PA biosynthesis genes in the pepper genome using bioinformatics approaches and to assess their expression under various stress conditions. A total of 16 PA biosynthesis-related genes were identified, representing members of the arginine decarboxylase (ADC), ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), agmatine iminohydrolase (AIH), N-carbamoylputrescine amidohydrolase (CPA), S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (SAMDC), spermidine synthase (SPDS), spermine synthase (SPMS), and ACAULIS5 (ACL5) gene families. These genes encode proteins with an average molecular weight of approximately 40 kDa, primarily localized in the mitochondria and cytoplasm. Promoter analysis revealed multiple cis-acting elements associated with stress and phytohormone responsiveness. Gene expression was induced by various abiotic stresses, including saline-alkaline, drought, heat, cold, and hydrogen peroxide, as well as by phytohormones such as abscisic acid, ethylene, salicylic acid, auxin, and gibberellin. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of PA biosynthesis genes in pepper and highlights their potential roles in stress adaptation and hormone signalling, offering a foundation for further exploration of PA-mediated stress tolerance mechanisms.

Capsicum↗

PubMed2026

Evolution and domestication-trait associations of ultra-long centromere haplotypes in pepper plants.

Centromeric and pericentromeric regions of most eukaryotic genomes are highly repetitive and strongly recombination-suppressed, confounding efforts to resolve genetic variation, population structure and phenotypic associations. Pepper (Capsicum annuum) centromeres are nearly devoid of satellite repeats, facilitating assembly and population-level comparison of centromeric regions. Here we integrate 9 near-complete genome assemblies, CENH3 ChIP-seq profiles from 26 diverse accessions, and resequencing and phenotypic data from ~400 cultivated and wild accessions to investigate population-level diversity and phenotypic relevance of pepper peri/centromeric regions. Functional centromere positions are largely fixed on 8 of 12 chromosomes, whereas the remaining 4 carry distinct centromeric epialleles shaped mainly by centromere repositioning and pericentromeric inversions. Pepper centromeres are embedded within ultra-long centromere-spanning haplotype (cenhap) blocks, ranging from 29.8 to 112.9 Mb and collectively covering 23.96% of the genome; each block contains only 1-4 major haplotypes. Some cenhaps may act as supergene-like units and are strongly associated with fruit traits, probably because recombination-suppressed intervals harbour multiple fruit-related genes, including OFP and F-box genes. F2 segregation assays further reveal transmission distortion of chromosomes carrying alternative cenhaps. Together, these findings highlight peri/centromeric regions as underrecognized reservoirs of agronomically important variation.

Centromere↗

PubMed2026

Molecular mechanisms and agronomic strategies for thermotolerance in chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.).

Heat stress is a primary environmental constraint on chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) productivity and fruit quality across global agricultural systems. Elevated temperatures adversely affect plant growth, flowering, fruit set, pod morphology, physiology, and metabolism. The severity of these impacts varies with the duration and intensity of heat exposure and with the stage of plant development. Reproductive development is especially vulnerable, resulting in compromised fruit formation and a decline in productivity. Heat stress disturbs photosynthesis, cellular structure integrity, and membrane stability through oxidative stress. Chili plants counter heat stress through complex molecular networks that encompass activation of antioxidant systems, heat shock protein (HSP) synthesis, osmolyte biosynthesis, and stress-responsive transcription factor expression. Recent advancements in genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics have elucidated fundamental regulatory pathways governing thermotolerance, highlighting the importance of heat-responsive genes, including CaHSPs, CaWRKYs, and CaNACs. This comprehensive review integrates contemporary understanding of physiological, biochemical, and molecular heat stress responses in chili pepper. Additionally, it evaluates potential agronomic and breeding strategies to strengthen crop adaptation to escalating global temperatures.

Capsicum↗

PubMed1979

Reversal of innate aversions: attempts to induce a preference for chili peppers in rats.

Although humans frequently develop preferences for innately unpalatable bitter or irritant substances, such preferences are extremely rare in animals. An attempt was made to understand the nature of this difference by systematic experiments with laboratory rats, with chili pepper as the unpalatable substance. In parallel with major aspects of the human experience with chili pepper, rats were exposed to it as a flavoring in all their food for periods up to 11 mo from birth, without significant preference enhancement. Gradual introduction of chili into the diet also had no effect, nor did a series of poisoning and safety experiences designed to teach the rats that only chili-flavored foods were safe to eat. A sequence of seven pairings of chili-flavored diet with prompt recovery from thiamine deficiency did significantly attenuate the innate aversion and may have induced a chili preference in at least one case. Extensive experience with chili did not reliably make rats much less sensitive to its oral effects. The only reliable way to eliminate chili aversion in rats is to destroy their chemical irritant sense, which was accomplished in one group of rats. It is concluded that in contrast to humans, it is extremely difficult to reverse innate aversions in rats.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Engineering cold stress resilience in capsicum annuum through functional genomics and precision breeding.

This review synthesizes the molecular mechanisms of cold tolerance in pepper, integrating multi-omics data,genome editing, and precision breeding strategies to accelerate the development of cold-resilient cultivars. Cold stress is a significant environmental factor that affects the growth, productivity, and fruit quality of Capsicum annuum by impairing membrane integrity photosynthesis and cellular redox homeostasis. Although pepper has several endogenous cold-responsive regulators such as CaNAC035 and CabHLH035, along with antioxidant defense systems, its cold tolerance remains limited due to low transcriptional activation of key regulators, functional redundancy among cold-responsive genes, and the polygenicity of cold tolerance. These complexities, combined with low genetic diversity and linkage drag, have hindered the improvement of cold-resistant cultivars through conventional breeding. This review brings together the recent progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms of cold stress perception, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, metabolic reprogramming, and phytohormone interactions in pepper. Precision Breeding 2.0 is a new innovation that combines the integration of multi-omics-based target identification with next-generation genome-editing techniques, allowing precise and multiplex engineering of complex and interconnected regulatory networks instead of single genes. We cover new approaches such as engineering the DREB/CBF pathway, allele-specific editing and targeted disruption of negative regulators to enhance the pathway(s) involved in cold response. Moreover, we propose a roadmap for integration of transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, high-throughput phenomics, and speed breeding to accelerate the identification, validation, and deployment of superior alleles to boost cold tolerance. This review provides a foundation for developing climate-resilient pepper cultivars by connecting functional genomics with precision genome engineering approaches to maintain productivity under variable environmental conditions.

Capsicum↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Physiological basis of salt tolerance in plants.

For most plants, and under most field conditions, osmotic effects of salinity greatly predominate in restricting growth and yields. In certain cases, however, specific ion effects may be decisive. These may involve either nutrition, as in calcium deficiency in some lettuce varieties, tomato, and bell peppers, or direct toxicity (chloride or sodium toxicity, or both) in tree and vine crops. Rootstocks, or varieties that restrict the uptake of toxic ions, increase the salt tolerance of some susceptible fruit crops. Salinity-induced nutritional imbalance can, in some cases, be corrected by selecting better adapted varieties and in others by the use of foliar nutrient sprays. Recent evidence indicates simple single-gene control over uptakes of chloride and sodium, but the more general osmotic effects appear to be complex and under multigenic control.

Biological Transport↗

PubMed2025

Chromosome-level genome assembly and annotation of Petunia hybrida.

Petunia hybrida is the world's most popular garden plant and is regarded as a supermodel for studying the biology associated with the Asterid clade, the largest of the two major groups of flowering plants. Unlike other Solanaceae, petunia has a base chromosome number of seven, not 12. This along with recombination suppression has previously hindered efforts to assemble its genome to chromosome level. Here we achieve a chromosome-level assembly for P. hybrida using a combination of short-read and long-read sequencing, optical mapping (Bionano) and Hi-C technologies. The resulting assembly spans 1253.6 Mb with a BUSCO score of 99.8%. A total of 35,089 genes were predicted and of those 29,655 were functionally annotated. Syntenic regions between petunia, tomato and pepper were identified, highlighting rearrangements that have occurred since their divergence indicating that the 12 chromosomes of Solanaceae did not originate from whole genome duplication of an ancestral species with seven chromosomes like petunia. This assembly will enhance trait mapping efficiency and serve as a valuable resource for functional genomic studies.

Petunia↗

PubMed2026

Proteomic profiling reveals that DPP4 overexpression increases cell adhesion, inhibits cell migration, and restores androgen sensitivity in prostate cancer.

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4), a serine protease with both enzymatic and non-enzymatic roles, has emerged as a context-dependent modulator of tumor progression. In the present study, we investigated the expression and function of DPP4 in androgen-sensitive and castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) models. Proteomic analysis of androgen-resistant prostate cells overexpressing DPP4 identified the involvement of the cellular adhesion molecules pathway. In prostate cells, lentiviral-mediated DPP4 overexpression restored androgen receptor signaling, inhibited epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and reduced cell migration, whereas DPP4 silencing produced the opposite effects. We demonstrate that DPP4 expression is down-regulated in CRPC cells and that treatment with capsaicin (CAP), a bioactive compound derived from red peppers, restores DPP4 expression. Moreover, DPP4 restoration by CAP suppresses prostate tumorigenesis in the TRAMP mice in vivo model of prostate cancer. Our results suggest that DPP4 could be a new target for CRPC.

Male↗

PubMed2025

Mutational scanning of TnpB reveals latent activity for genome editing.

TnpB is a diverse family of RNA-guided endonucleases associated with prokaryotic transposons. Due to their small size and putative evolutionary relationship to CRISPR-Cas12, TnpB enzymes hold significant potential for genome editing. However, most TnpBs lack robust gene editing activity, and unbiased profiling of mutational effects on editing activity has not been explored. Here, we mapped comprehensive sequence-function landscapes of a TnpB ribonucleoprotein and discovered many activating mutations in both the protein and RNA. One- and two-position RNA mutants outperform existing variants, highlighting the utility of systematic RNA scaffold mutagenesis. Leveraging the protein's mutational landscape, we identified enhanced TnpB variants from a combinatorial library of activating mutations. These variants enhanced editing in human cells, N. benthamiana, pepper, and rice, with up to a fifty-fold increase compared to wild-type TnpB. These findings highlight previously unknown elements critical for regulating TnpB endonuclease activity and reveal surprising latent activity accessible through mutation.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2025

Genomics control of biostimulant-induced stress tolerance and crop yield enhancement.

Biostimulants are changing modern agriculture, as they have the potential to secure healthy and sustainable food production while preserving the environment. They have two main biological effects: growth promotion and stress protection. Both effects can lead to enhancement of the yield and improvement of the marketable grade of the produce in crops, without compromising crop quality. Their use increased exponentially in the past decade, as they are highly efficient, ecologically friendly (non-toxic, biodegradable), and applicable to all major crops. While exponential data on the physiological mechanisms of stress protection is accumulating in recent years, the information as to how biostimulants act at the molecular level is still rather limited. Here we review the growing evidence of the biostimulants role in stress protection and yield enhancement of crops, as well as the recent transcriptomic and metabolomic data, which indicate biostimulants' molecular mode of action. In particular, we outline the role of genes encoding signaling components, plant hormones (abscisic acid, brassinosteroids, and ethylene), genes encoding transcription factors from ERF, WRKY, NAC, and MYB families, and genes related to growth, photosynthesis, and stress response. Finally, we describe strategies to study the genetic and genomics control of biostimulants mode of action, with foci on stress tolerance and yield enhancement. In Arabidopsis, established systems for biostimulants-induced protection against drought and oxidative stress will allow both forward and reverse genetics approaches to identify key genes from the biostimulants network. Mutations in such genes compromise the stress-protective effect of biostimulants. In major crops such as pepper and tomato, large Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) panels can be utilized to study crops responses to biostimulants in terms of drought tolerance, fruit qualities, and yield in order to pinpoint genes controlling biostimulants-induced stress protection and yield enhancement. The combination of these approaches allows identification and verification of important genes involved in the pathways of biostimulant-induced stress protection and yield enhancement, as well as deciphering parts of the intricate biostimulant-signaling network.

Crops, Agricultural↗

PubMed2026

Capsaicin ameliorates glycemic levels via gut microbiota-derived 5-aminolevulinic acid in mice.

BACKGROUND: Capsaicin, a natural alkaloid in chili peppers, regulates glycemic levels; however, its mechanisms and therapeutic potential remain unclear. This study aimed to elucidate the role of gut microbiota and their metabolites in mediating capsaicin's glycemic regulatory effects. We conducted experiments in specific pathogen-free (SPF) and germ-free (GF) mice, transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) receptor ablation studies, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) to demonstrate the involvement of gut microbiota in capsaicin-mediated glycemic control. Metagenomics and metabolomics analyses were employed to identify key microbial strains and metabolic pathways. Keystone strains and metabolites were supplemented in GF mice without capsaicin intervention to validate their effects on glycemic regulation. In vitro co-culture experiments were performed to investigate the mutualistic relationships among keystone strains under capsaicin treatment. RESULTS: Gut microbiota constitute an important component of capsaicin-mediated glycemic regulation, acting in concert with but not solely dependent on TRPV1 signaling. Gut microbiota altered by capsaicin promote the production of 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), which contributes to heme synthesis and enhances glycemic control. Supplementation with Akkermansia muciniphila, Ligilactobacillus murinus, or 5-ALA in GF mice recapitulates the glycemic benefits of capsaicin. Furthermore, capsaicin enriches Akkermansia muciniphila, which in turn supports the growth of Ligilactobacillus murinus. CONCLUSION: Capsaicin-induced changes in the gut microbiota promote 5-ALA synthesis, leading to improved glycemic control. These findings suggest that dietary or probiotic interventions targeting gut microbiota, particularly Akkermansia muciniphila and 5-ALA, may offer promising strategies for managing glycemic disorders, including type 2 diabetes (T2D). Video Abstract.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Hybridization capture increases on-target nanopore sequencing of plant RNA tobamovirus- derived cDNA libraries.

High-throughput sequencing (HTS) can support plant virus surveillance, but host nucleic acids often reduce on-target read recovery. We evaluated a targeted hybridization-capture workflow in which barcoded double-stranded cDNA (ds-cDNA) libraries generated from plant RNA extracts spiked with lyophilized tobamovirus-positive controls were enriched before Oxford Nanopore sequencing. Biotinylated probes targeted conserved regions of cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV), species Tobamovirus viridimaculae; pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), species Tobamovirus capsici; and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), species Tobamovirus tabaci. Across four pairs per virus, relative target-read abundance increased after capture from 0.76 ± 0.33% to 37.62 ± 15.72% for CGMMV, 8.16 ± 3.86% to 24.68 ± 12.34% for PMMoV, and 15.62 ± 10.40% to 36.83 ± 30.33% for TMV. Exact two-sided Wilcoxon signed-rank tests yielded P = 0.125 for each virus; with four nonzero differences in a common direction, this was the minimum attainable two-sided P value. Genome-coverage breadth was maintained. Retrospective duplex qPCR supported an increased virus-to-18S ratio for CGMMV, showed a variable PMMoV response, and showed a decreased virus-to-18S ratio for TMV because the 18S signal shifted earlier by as much as or more than the TMV signal. The findings provide proof-of-concept evidence for target-dependent library enrichment but do not establish analytical sensitivity, diagnostic performance, or field validity. Validation with naturally infected, low-titer, and mixed-infection samples and comparison with simpler targeted workflows are required.

biosecurity↗

PubMed2026

Genome Editing in Solanaceae: Harnessing CRISPR-Cas Technology for Precision Crop Improvement.

Malnutrition and climate-induced stress remain major constraints to global food and nutritional security despite the yield gains of the Green Revolution. Solanaceae crops such as tomato, potato, brinjal, and pepper are key sources of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Yet, their genetic improvement has been limited by narrow diversity and complex polygenic traits. The advent of CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing provides a transformative platform for precision crop improvement by enabling targeted modification of genes controlling stress tolerance, yield, and nutritional quality. In Solanaceae, CRISPR/Cas applications have successfully enhanced resistance against major pathogens (SlMlo1, SlPelo, SlDCL2), improved abiotic stress tolerance through editing of SlMAPK3, SlCBF1, and SlBZR1, and optimized fruit quality traits via modulation of Psy1, CrtR-b2, and fiAD2/3. Emerging innovations, such as base and prime editing, and RNP-mediated transgene-free delivery, are expanding the precision and scope of editing. However, challenges persist, including genotype-dependent transformation, low HDR efficiency, and incomplete understanding of off-target and epigenetic effects. Integrating CRISPR with omics-guided gene discovery, efficient transformation systems, and regulatory harmonization can accelerate the development of nutritionally enriched, stress-resilient, and sustainable Solanaceae varieties. This review synthesizes recent advances, identifies critical limitations, and outlines future opportunities for deploying CRISPR/Cas technology to achieve next-generation breeding and food system resilience.

CRISPR/Cas↗