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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed1988

Gas chromatographic analysis of shell membrane amino acids from hard-shelled, soft-shelled, and shell-less eggs.

The amino acid composition of shell membranes from hard-shelled (HS), soft-shelled (SS), and shell-less (SL) eggs produced by 62-wk-old hens was analyzed by gas chromatography using N-acetyl n-propyl ester derivatives. This technique succeeded in identifying tryptophane and ornithine as shell membrane components. There were no significant differences in the concentrations of any of the 17 amino acids analyzed among HS and SS eggs, HS and SL eggs, or SS and SL eggs. Stepwise discriminant analysis of the amino acid ratios correctly classified all of the amino acid chromatograms of shell membranes from HS/SL and SS/SL egg pairs, and 92.9% of the HS/SS and 90.0% of the HS/SS/SL amino acid chromatograms were classified correctly (F = 1.0). Higher F values reduced the percentage of correct classifications to 75.0%, 85.0%, and 67.5% (F = 2.0) for the HS/SL, SS/SL, and HS/SS/SL egg groups, respectively, and to 78.6% (F = 3.0) for the HS/SS egg group. Stepwise discriminant analysis also identified specific amino acid ratios that were most efficient at classifying the amino acid chromatograms according to shell type. This process identified three amino acid ratios for the HS/SS egg group (F = 3.0), two ratios for the HS/SL egg group, four ratios for the SS/SL egg group, and four ratios for the HS/SS/SL egg group (F = 2.0). Based on the number of times they appeared as efficient discriminating variables at higher F values, alanine, proline, and isoleucine seemed to be the most important amino acids for correctly classifying shell membranes by egg type.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed2005

Recovery of Salmonella from commercial shell eggs by shell rinse and shell crush methodologies.

Salmonella is the most important human pathogen associated with shell eggs. Salmonella Enteritidis is the serotype most often implicated in outbreaks, although other serotypes have been recovered from eggs and from the commercial shell egg washing environment. Many sample methods are used to recover microorganisms from eggshells and membranes. A shell rinse and modified shell-and-membrane crush method for recovery of Salmonella were compared. Eggs were collected from 3 commercial shell-washing facilities (X, Y, and Z) during 3 visits. Twelve eggs were collected from each of 10 to 12 locations along the egg processing chain. After being transported back to the laboratory, each egg was sampled first by a shell rinse method and then by a shell crush method. For each technique (rinse or crush), 2 pools of 5 eggs per location sampled were selectively enriched for the recovery of Salmonella. Presumptive samples positive for Salmonella were confirmed serologically. Overall, there were 10.1% (40/396) Salmonella-positive pooled samples. Salmonella were recovered by the shell rinse and shell crush techniques (4.8 vs. 5.3%, respectively). Plant X yielded 21.5% Salmonella positives, whereas less than 5% of samples from plants Y and Z were found to be contaminated with the organism (4.2 and 4.5%, respectively). Salmonella was recovered more often from unwashed eggs (15.8%) than from washed eggs (8.3%). For some eggs, Salmonella was only recovered by one of the methods. Use of both approaches in the same experiment increased sampling sensitivity, although in most cases, crushing provided more sensitive Salmonella recovery.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Shell rinse and shell crush methods for the recovery of aerobic microorganisms and enterobacteriaceae from shell eggs.

Recovery of bacteria from shell eggs is important for evaluating the efficacy of processing and the quality and safety of the final product. Shell rinse (SR) techniques are easy to perform and widely used. An alternative sampling method involves crushing and rubbing the shell (CR). To determine the most appropriate method for recovering microorganisms from shell eggs, 358 shell eggs were collected from a commercial egg processor and sampled by SR and CR techniques. Total aerobic mesophiles and Enterobacteriaceae were enumerated on plate count and violet red bile glucose agar plates, respectively. Unwashed, in process, and postprocess eggs were evaluated in the study. Aerobic microorganism prevalence for eggshells sampled was similar for both methods (approximately 100%), but the log CFU per milliliter values were higher in the SR than the CR samples (3.2 and 2.2, respectively). Average Enterobacteriaceae recovery was similar for both methods (45 versus 40% for the SR and CR methods, respectively) when all eggs were considered together. This population was detected more often by SR when unwashed eggs were sampled (90 versus 56% for the SR and CR methods, respectively), equally by SR and CR for in-process eggs (30 versus 29.3% for the SR and CR methods, respectively), but more often by CR for postprocess eggs (10 versus 36% for the SR and CR methods, respectively). The SR technique was easier to perform and recovered larger numbers of aerobic organisms, particularly for unwashed eggs. However, the CR technique was more efficient for recovery of Enterobacteriaceae from postprocess eggs. Stage of shell egg processing may be an important consideration when choosing egg sampling methods.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Identification of the clam species Ruditapes decussatus (Grooved carpet shell), Venerupis pullastra (Pullet carpet shell), and Ruditapes philippinarum (Japanese carpet shell)by PCR-RFLP.

PCR-RFLP analysis has been applied to the identification of three clam species: Ruditapes decussatus (grooved carpet shell), Venerupis pullastra (pullet carpet shell), and Ruditapes philippinarum (Japanese carpet shell). PCR amplification was carried out using a set of primers designed from the DNA nucleotide sequences reported for alpha-actins from humans and various animals. Restriction endonuclease analysis based on sequence data of the PCR products of each clam species revealed the presence of species-specific polymorphic sites for MaeIII and RsaI endonucleases. Electrophoretic analysis of the amplicons digested with MaeIII and RsaI produced species-specific profiles that allowed the genetic identification of the three clam species.

Animals↗

PubMed1980

Ultrastructural morphology of the shell and shell membrane of eggs of common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina).

Common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) lay nearly spherical, flexible-shelled eggs having an outer mineral layer composed of calcium carbonate in the aragonite form. The mineral layer is arranged into loosely organized groups of nodular shell units, with numerous spaces (or pores) between adjacent shell units. Shell units are structurally complex, consisting of an inner tip that is morphologically distinct from the main body of the shell unit. Contained within an intact shell unit at the interface of the tip and the main part of the shell unit is the central plaque, an apparent modification of the shell membrane that may serve to nucleate calcification of shell units during shell formation. The tips of shell units are firmly attached to a single, multilayered shell membrane throughout much of incubation. The calcareous layer begins to detach from the shell membrane about half-way through incubation, and changes in shell morphology attending this detachment indicate that snapping turtles may use the shell as a source of calcium during embryogenesis. The arrangement of the mineral layer into groups of shell units, the large number of spaces between shell units, and little or no interlocking of crystallites of adjacent shell units apparently are factors contributing to the ability of these eggs to swell as they absorb water.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Plasma, follicular, and uterine levels of prostaglandins in chickens laying soft-shelled and shell-less eggs.

Not all eggs produced by chickens are laid at the expected time of oviposition. Some eggs are laid prematurely, which result in inadequate shells. These uncollectible eggs are referred to as soft-shelled (partial calcification) or shell-less (no calcification) eggs. Of all soft-shelled or shell-less eggs that were laid in the present study, 57% were expelled prematurely. To determine whether prostaglandins were correlated with the expulsion of soft-shelled or shell-less eggs, prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2alpha), 13,14-dihydro-15 keto prostaglandin F2alpha (PGFM), and 13-14-dihydro-15 keto prostaglandin E2 (PGEM) were measured in the peripheral plasma and follicular and uterine tissues of hens laying soft-shelled eggs and shell-less eggs. Controls were represented by hens laying hard-shelled eggs (normal calcification). Plasma concentrations of PGFM increased (P less than .01) upon the premature oviposition of soft-shelled eggs but not shell-less eggs. The source of the peripheral PGFM may have been the preovulatory follicle, because PGF2alpha levels were higher (P less than .07) in the soft-shelled or shell-less egg layers when compared with the controls. Plasma and tissue levels of PGEM did not differ between hens laying soft-shelled or shell-less eggs versus hard-shelled eggs. These results suggest that PGF2alpha and PGFM are involved in the premature oviposition of some chicken eggs.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Associations between shell strength, shell morphology and heavy metals in the land snail Cepaea nemoralis (Gastropoda, Helicidae).

In snails there is an intimate relation between shell size, thickness, strength and calcium content that may be influenced by environmental factors such as predation and heavy metal pollution. The snail Cepaea nemoralis shows variability for shell colour and banding pattern, and frequencies of colour morphs are highly variable in natural populations. We used C. nemoralis to investigate (i) the relations between shell morphology, shell Ca and heavy metal content (Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn), and shell strength, (ii) differences in shell morphology and shell strength among localities and yellow and pink shells and (iii) whether snails from polluted sites show increased levels of heavy metals in their shell. Larger shells were heavier, thicker, needed a higher force to be crushed but did not have a higher Ca concentration. Cd and Zn concentrations were higher in shells from polluted plots compared to shells from unpolluted plots but Ca levels in the shell were comparable among plots. Zn concentration was negatively correlated with shell traits. Although there was substantial variation in shell strength, thickness and dry weight among localities, none of the shell traits differed between individuals from polluted and reference plots nor between colour morphs. Our results suggest that the effect of heavy metal pollution on shell strength and morphology is limited in the investigated populations.

Animals↗

PubMed1975

Effect of chlorinated hydrocarbons on shell gland carbonic anhydrase and egg shell thickness in Japanese quail.

Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) were fed different levels of pesticide in their diets for 15 weeks. The levels of pesticide used were 25, 50, 100, 200 p.p.m. DDE 25, 50, 100, 200 p.p.m. DDT and 50 p.p.m. PCB. Carbonic anhydrase activities were analyzed in the shell glands and blood; pesticide concentration in the eggs of the first experiment was measured; egg weight, shell weight and shell thickness were also measured. No depression in growth was observed at any levels of pesticides used. Quail fed 200 p.p.m. DDE showed a high mortality rate after 10--12 weeks on the diet, while other levels produced no increase in death rate. Lower levels of DDT and DDE (25 and 50 p.p.m.) had no significant effect on egg shell weight or thickness. Higher levels (100 and 200 p.p.m) of DDT and DDE produced a small increase in shell weight and a 5 per cent decrease in shell thickness and were associated with increased shell breakage. At levels of 25 p.p.m. and 50 p.p.m. DDE, the activity of carbonic anhydrase in the shell gland was significantly increased. At levels of 200 p.p.m. DDE and 100 p.p.m. DDT in the diet, the activity of carbonic anhydrase was decreased by 12--15 per cent. A 50 per cent reduction in carbonic anhydrase activity in the shell gland seemed to be necessary for an increased production of soft shelled eggs when it was induces by sulfanilamide. Pesticide residues in the eggs of Japanes quail up to about 300 p.p.m. DDE and 150 p.p.m. DDT were not associated with any change in egg shell thickness. At about 600 p.p.m. DDE and 500 p.p.m. DDT in the eggs, corresponding to 100 and 200 p.p.m. in the diet, the egg shell thickness was reduced by 5 per cent. PCB at 50 p.p.m. produced a small decrease (4.5 per cent) in shell thickness and an increase in the percentage of cracked eggs.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

The ontogeny of shell secretion in Terebratalia transversa (Brachiopoda, Articulata). II. Formation of the protegulum and juvenile shell.

The fine structure of the shell and underlying mantle in young juveniles of the articulate brachiopod Terebratalia transversa has been examined by electron microscopy. The first shell produced by the mantle consists of a nonhinged protegulum that lacks concentric growth lines. The protegulum is secreted within a day after larval metamorphosis and typically measures 140-150 micron long. A thin organic periostracum constitutes the outer layer of the protegulum, and finely granular shell material occurs beneath the periostracum. Protegula resist digestion in sodium hypochlorite and are refractory to sectioning, suggesting that the subperiostracal portion of the primordial shell is mineralized. The juvenile shell at 4 days postmetamorphosis possesses incomplete sockets and rudimentary teeth that consist of nonfibrous material. The secondary layer occuring in the inner part of the juvenile shell contains imbricated fibers, whereas the outer portion of the shell comprises a bipartite periostracum and an underlying primary layer of nonfibrous shell. Deposition of the periostracum takes place within a slot that is situated between the so-called lobate and vesicular cells of the outer mantle lobe. Vesicular cells deposit the basal layer of the periostracum, while lobate cells contribute materials to the overlying periostracal superstructure. Cells with numerous tonofibrils and hemidesmosomes differentiate in the outer mantle epithelium at sites of muscle attachments, and unbranched punctae that surround mantle caeca develop throughout the subperiostracal portion of the shell. Three weeks after metamorphosis, the juvenile shell averages about 320 micron in length and is similar in ultrastructure to the shells secreted by adult articulates.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Adsorption of volatile organic compounds by pecan shell- and almond shell-based granular activated carbons.

The objective of this research was to determine the effectiveness of using pecan and almond shell-based granular activated carbons (GACs) in the adsorption of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of health concern and known toxic compounds (such as bromo-dichloromethane, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,1,1-trichloromethane, chloroform, and 1,1-dichloromethane) compared to the adsorption efficiency of commercially used carbons (such as Filtrasorb 200, Calgon GRC-20, and Waterlinks 206C AW) in simulated test medium. The pecan shell-based GACs were activated using steam, carbon dioxide or phosphoric acid. An almond shell-based GAC was activated with phosphoric acid. Our results indicated that steam- or carbon dioxide-activated pecan shell carbons were superior in total VOC adsorption to phosphoric acid-activated pecan shell or almond shell carbons, inferring that the method of activation selected for the preparation of activated carbons affected the adsorption of VOCs and hence are factors to be considered in any adsorption process. The steam-activated, pecan shell carbon adsorbed more total VOCs than the other experimental carbons and had an adsorption profile similar to the two coconut shell-based commercial carbons, but had greater adsorption than the coal-based commercial carbon. All the carbons studied adsorbed benzene more effectively than the other organics. Pecan shell, steam-activated and acid-activated GACs showed higher adsorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane than the other carbons studied. Multivariate analysis was conducted to group experimental carbons and commercial carbons based on their physical, chemical, and adsorptive properties. The results of the analysis conclude that steam-activated and acid-activated pecan shell carbons clustered together with coal-based and coconut shell-based commercial carbons, thus inferring that these experimental carbons could potentially be used as alternative sources for VOC adsorption in an aqueous environment.

Adsorption↗

PubMed1986

Blood levels of ionized calcium, inorganic phosphorus, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol and gonadal hormones in hens laying hard-shelled or shell-less eggs.

The production of shell-less eggs was induced in hens to measure the effects of the high demands made by shell formation on the blood minerals and hormones whose concentrations change during egg formation. In control hens laying hard-shelled eggs, the concentration of ionized calcium in plasma decreased at the onset of shell formation, but no change was found in hens laying shell-less eggs. Total calcium concentrations in plasma decreased slightly throughout the ovulation cycle in both groups. Concentrations of inorganic phosphorus in the plasma were increased in the control group during the period of shell formation and decreased when calcification was suppressed. Finally, the concentrations of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25-(OH)2D3) in plasma were significantly increased 16 and 20 h following an ovulation compared with 4 h after ovulation, or compared with the concentrations observed in hens laying shell-less eggs. The variations in the plasma concentrations of ionized calcium, inorganic phosphorus and 1,25-(OH)2D3 associated with egg formation were therefore absent in hens laying shell-less eggs demonstrating their direct link with shell calcification. On the other hand, suppression of shell production had no influence on the changes in the plasma concentrations of progesterone, oestradiol and testosterone which are associated with the normal ovulatory cycle. It is concluded that the increases in intestinal and uterine calcium transport and in 1,25-(OH)2D3 production which occur at the onset of egg production in hens are mainly controlled by factors involved in maintaining calcium homeostasis rather than by gonadal hormones.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Effects of presence of an egg and calcium deposition in the shell gland on levels of messenger ribonucleic acid of CaBP-D28K and of vitamin D3 receptor in the shell gland of the laying hen.

Levels of calbindin-D28K (CaBP-D28K) mRNA and vitamin D3, 1 alpha, 25(OH)2D3, receptor (VDR) mRNA in the intestine and shell gland were measured in the laying hen during the ovulatory cycle by Northern and slot blot analyses. In addition, effects of presence of an egg and calcium deposition in the shell gland on the levels of both mRNAs were studied either by delay in oviposition (retaining the egg in the shell gland beyond the expected time of oviposition) or premature oviposition (emptying the shell gland and arrest of calcium deposition). During the ovulatory cycle mRNA levels of CaBP-D28K and of VDR remained relatively constant in the intestine. In contrast, both mRNA levels of the shell gland were low when there was an egg in the infundibulum, magnum, and isthmus, but significantly increased when there was an egg in the shell gland during shell formation. The im injection of indomethacin 3 hr before expected ovulation delayed oviposition but increased neither shell thickness nor mRNA levels of CaBP-D28K and of VDR. On the other hand, premature oviposition reduced mRNA levels of both CaBP-D28K and VDR in the shell gland. These results suggest that the presence of an egg and calcium deposition in the shell gland may be a stimulatory factor for synthesis and accumulation of CaBP-D28K mRNA and VDR mRNA in association with calcification.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Oil core-polymer shell microcapsules prepared by internal phase separation from emulsion droplets. I. Characterization and release rates for microcapsules with polystyrene shells.

Microcapsules with an oil core surrounded by a polymeric shell have been prepared by the controlled phase separation of polymer dissolved within the oil droplets of an oil-in-water emulsion. The dispersed oil phase consists of the shell polymer (polystyrene), a good solvent for the polymer (dichloromethane), and a poor solvent for the polymer (typically hexadecane). Removal of the good solvent results in phase separation of the polymer within the oil droplets. If the three interfacial tensions between the core oil, the shell-forming polymer, and the continuous phase are of the required relative magnitudes, a polymer shell forms surrounding the poor solvent. A UV-responsive organic molecule was added to the oil phase, prior to emulsification, to investigate the release of a model active ingredient from the microcapsules. This molecule should be soluble in the organic core but also have some water solubility to provide a driving force for release into the continuous aqueous phase. As the release rate of the active ingredient is a function of the thickness of the polymeric shell, for controlled release applications, it is necessary to control this parameter. For the preparative method described here, the thickness of the shell formed is directly related to the mass of polymer dissolved in the oil phase. The rate of volatile solvent removal influences the porosity of the polymer shell. Rapid evaporation leads to cracks in the shell and a relatively fast release rate of the active ingredient. If a more gentle evaporation method is employed, the porosity of the polymer shell is decreased, resulting in a reduction in release rate. Cross-linking the polymer shell after capsule formation was also found to decrease both the release rate and the yield of the active ingredient. The nature of the oil core also affected the release yield.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2006

Influence of shell thickness and cross-link density on the structure of temperature-sensitive poly-N-isopropylacrylamide-poly-N-isopropylmethacrylamide core-shell microgels investigated by small-angle neutron scattering.

Swelling properties of doubly temperature sensitive core-shell microgels consisting of two thermosensitive polymers with lower critical solution temperatures (LCTS) at, respectively, 34 degrees C in the core and 44 degrees C in the shell have been investigated by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). A core-shell form factor has been employed to evaluate the structure, and the real space particle structure is expressed by radial density profiles. By this means, the influences of both shell/core mass composition and shell cross-linker content on the internal structure have been revealed at temperatures above, between, and below the LCSTs. Higher shell/core mass ratios lead to an increased expansion of the core at temperatures between the LCSTs, whereas a variation of cross-linker in the shell mainly effects the dimensions of the shell. The influence on the core structure was interpreted as resulting from an elastic force developed from the swollen shell. At temperatures below the core LCST, the core cannot swell to its native size (i.e., in the absence of a shell), because the maximum expanded shell network prohibits further swelling. Thus, depending on temperature, the shell either expands or compresses the core.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1999

Ionic exchanges of turtle shell in vitro and their relevance to shell function in the anoxic turtle

To understand more fully the role of the in vivo turtle shell in buffering lactic acid produced during prolonged anoxia, powdered turtle shell was incubated in vitro at constant pH (6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7. 5 or 8.0) in electrolyte solutions simulating extracellular fluid. Exchanges of ions and CO2 between the shell and solution were evaluated by measuring pre- and post-incubation solution concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate and lactate. The production of CO2 from the shell and lactate within the shell were also measured. We observed that calcium and magnesium, but not phosphate, were released from the shell in association with CO2 and that the magnitude of release of each increased with solution acidity. The amount of acid titration required to maintain constant pH also increased as solution pH fell. The CO2 loss, in mmol, was approximately half the acid titration (in mmol), indicating that the evolved CO2 derives from carbonate. When the incubating solution contained lactate (50 mmol l-1), lactate entered the shell and again the amount entering the shell increased with solution acidity. Shell samples containing high initial lactate levels lost lactate to the solution and at high pH (7.5) acidified the solution and required NaOH titration for pH-stat control. These results are consistent with observations on anoxic turtles in vivo and confirm the important role of the shell as a source of buffer and as a storage site for lactate.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1989

Modelling the relationships of egg weight, specific gravity, shell calcium and shell thickness.

1. The relationships between egg weight, egg specific gravity, shell weight, shell calcium and shell thickness of 800 eggs from 8 treatments were expressed using mathematical models. 2. The equations describing the relationships were on the basis of any two independent variables predicting the remainder. 3. Of 10 possible models, 4 had high co-efficients of determination (R2 greater than 0.80) for each predicted dependent variable. 4. The two independent variables in each of these 4 models were, in turn, egg weight and specific gravity, egg weight and shell weight, egg weight and shell thickness, and specific gravity and shell weight. 5. The best model was that having egg weight and specific gravity as independent variables, with R2 values of 0.94, 0.88, and 0.85 for predicted shell weight, shell calcium, and shell thickness, respectively. Moreover, egg characteristics can be measured non-destructively by this model, whereas the other three require destruction of the egg.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1996

Selection for egg shell strength in laying hens using shell membrane characteristics.

1. Divergent selection for attachment strength between the shell membrane and the calcium shell was performed in a White Leghorn strain. Multivariate analysis was used to estimate genetic parameters for shell membrane measurements and shell thickness. The aim was to investigate the possibility of improving shell strength in laying hens by selecting for increased attachment strength. 2. A significant direct selection response for attachment strength was achieved. There was a favourable correlated selection differential in the frequency of cracked eggs which resulted in a nonsignificant but favourable, correlated response. Selection for a strong attachment resulted in a thinner egg shell, and vice versa. Heritabilities were all relatively high (0.30 to 0.70). Most of the genetic correlations were in agreement with the achieved correlated responses. 3. Two factors that probably contributed to the responses in egg shell thickness were an unfavourable genetic correlation between attachment strength and shell thickness, and natural selection against changes in attachment strength, in the form of increased mortality during incubation and hatching. Problems connected with breeding for increased shell strength are discussed.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Sexual selection on land snail shell ornamentation: a hypothesis that may explain shell diversity.

BACKGROUND: Many groups of land snails show great interspecific diversity in shell ornamentation, which may include spines on the shell and flanges on the aperture. Such structures have been explained as camouflage or defence, but the possibility that they might be under sexual selection has not previously been explored. PRESENTATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS: The hypothesis that is presented consists of two parts. First, that shell ornamentation is the result of sexual selection. Second, that such sexual selection has caused the divergence in shell shape in different species. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS: The first part of the hypothesis may be tested by searching for sexual dimorphism in shell ornamentation in gonochoristic snails, by searching for increased variance in shell ornamentation relative to other shell traits, and by mate choice experiments using individuals with experimentally enhanced ornamentation. The second part of the hypothesis may be tested by comparing sister groups and correlating shell diversity with degree of polygamy. IMPLICATIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS: If the hypothesis were true, it would provide an explanation for the many cases of allopatric evolutionary radiation in snails, where shell diversity cannot be related to any niche differentiation or environmental differences.

Animals↗