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PubMed2006

Effects of pesticides on soil invertebrates in laboratory studies: a review and analysis using species sensitivity distributions.

Species sensitivity distributions (SSD) and 5% hazardous concentrations (HC5) are distribution-based approaches for assessing environmental risks of pollutants. These methods have potential for application in pesticide risk assessments, but their applicability for assessing pesticide risks to soil invertebrate communities has not been evaluated. Using data obtained in a systematic review, the present study investigates the relevance of SSD and HC5 for predicting pesticide risks to soil invertebrates. Altogether, 1950 laboratory toxicity data were obtained, representing 250 pesticides and 67 invertebrate taxa. The majority (96%) of pesticides have toxicity data for fewer than five species. Based on a minimum of five species, the best available endpoint data (acute mortality median lethal concentration) enabled SSD and HC5 to be calculated for 11 pesticides (atrazine, carbendazim, chlorpyrifos, copper compounds, diazinon, dimethoate, gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane, lambda-cyhalothrin, parathion, pentachlorophenol, and propoxur). Arthropods and oligochaetes exhibit pronounced differences in their sensitivity to most of these pesticides. The standard test earthworm species, Eisenia fetida sensu lato, is the species that is least sensitive to insecticides based on acute mortality, whereas the standard Collembola test species, Folsomia candida, is among the most sensitive species for a broad range of toxic modes of action (biocide, fungicide, herbicide, and insecticide). These findings suggest that soil arthropods should be tested routinely in regulatory risk assessments. In addition, the data indicate that the uncertainty factor for earthworm acute mortality tests (i.e., 10) does not fully cover the range of earthworm species sensitivities and that acute mortality tests would not provide the most sensitive risk estimate for earthworms in the majority (95%) of cases.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Effects of data manipulation and statistical methods on species sensitivity distributions.

Species sensitivity distribution (SSD) methodology currently is used in environmental risk assessment to determine the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of a substance in cases where a sufficient number of chronic ecotoxicological tests have been carried out on the substance, covering, for the aquatic environment with which we are concerned, three taxonomic groups: algae, invertebrates, and vertebrates. In particular, SSD methodology enables calculation of a hazardous concentration that is assumed to protect 95% of species (HC5). This approach is based on the hypothesis that the species for which results of ecotoxicological tests are known are representative, in terms of sensitivity, of the totality of the species in the environment, which raises a number of questions, both theoretical and practical. In this study, we compared various methods of constructing a species sensitivity-weighted distribution (SSWD). Each method is characterized by a different way of taking into account intraspecies variation and proportions of taxonomic groups (vertebrates, invertebrates, and algae), as well as by the statistical method of calculation of the HC5 and its confidence interval. Those methods are tested on 15 substances by using chronic no-observed-effect concentration data available in the literature. The choice of data (intraspecies variation and proportions between taxonomic groups) was found to have more effect on the value of the HC5 than the statistical method used to construct the distribution. The weight of each taxonomic group is the most important parameter for the result of the SSWD and letting literature references decide which proportions of data are used to construct it is not satisfactory.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2005

Insecticide species sensitivity distributions: importance of test species selection and relevance to aquatic ecosystems.

Single-species acute toxicity data and (micro)mesocosm data were collated for 16 insecticides. These data were used to investigate the importance of test-species selection in constructing species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) and the ability of estimated hazardous concentrations (HCs) to protect freshwater aquatic ecosystems. A log-normal model was fitted to a minimum of six data points, and the resulting distribution was used to estimate lower (95% confidence), median (50% confidence), and upper (5% confidence) 5% HC (HC5) values. Species sensitivity distributions for specific taxonomic groups (vertebrates, arthropods, nonarthropod invertebrates), habitats (saltwater, freshwater, lentic, lotic), and geographical regions (Palaearctic, Nearctic, temperate, tropical) were compared. The taxonomic composition of the species assemblage used to construct the SSD does have a significant influence on the assessment of hazard, but the habitat and geographical distribution of the species do not. Moreover, SSDs constructed using species recommended in test guidelines did not differ significantly from those constructed using nonrecommended species. Hazardous concentrations estimated using laboratory-derived acute toxicity data for freshwater arthropods (i.e., the most sensitive taxonomic group) were compared to the response of freshwater ecosystems exposed to insecticides. The sensitivity distributions of freshwater arthropods were similar for both field and laboratory exposure, and the lower HC5 (95% protection with 95% confidence) estimate was protective of adverse ecological effects in freshwater ecosystems. The corresponding median HC5 (95% protection level with 50% confidence) was generally protective of single applications of insecticide but not of continuous or multiple applications. In the latter cases, a safety factor of at least five should be applied to the median HC5.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2000

Uncertainty of the hazardous concentration and fraction affected for normal species sensitivity distributions.

Species in the environment vary according to their sensitivity to a toxicant. Because these differences in sensitivity are unique to the toxicant at consideration and laboratory data sets to assess this variability are very small due to cost, it is important to provide uncertainty estimates of (1) environmental quality objectives (hazardous concentrations) derived from these laboratory data and (2) fraction of species affected at given, or predicted, laboratory or environmental concentrations. This article focuses on the normal (Gaussian) distribution of species sensitivity. It examines and compares results of Problems (1) and (2) from two opposing statistical philosophies, Bayesian and Classical, leading to vastly different numerical approaches. For the normal model, both approaches lead to identical answers, numerically. Extrapolation factors for the lower, median, and upper estimates of the hazardous concentration at six levels of protection are derived. Furthermore, upper, median, and lower estimates of the fraction affected at given, standardized, logarithmic concentrations have been tabulated. This table can be used directly for risk assessment without reference to protection levels or hazardous concentrations. The confidence limits for hazardous concentration and fraction affected depend heavily on the number of species tested and are independent of the toxic substance involved (provided the model is right), due to correction for the mean and standard deviation of the toxicity data. The equivalence of confidence limits for hazardous concentration and fraction affected is captured in the law of extrapolation: the upper (median, lower) confidence limit for the fraction affected at the lower (median, upper) confidence limit of the hazardous concentration is equal to the fraction affected (e.g., 5%) used to define the hazardous concentration. The upper confidence limit for the fraction affected at the median estimate of the hazardous concentration for 5% of the species is a fixed number depending on the sample size of the toxicity data only. It amounts to 46% at n=3, down to 20% at n=10, and still 12% at n 30.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Using biological traits to predict species sensitivity to toxic substances.

Species sensitivity distributions (SSD) assume that sensitivity to toxicants within target species is random. While the SSD approach has shown promise, it is limited by the fact that data are sparse for most compounds, and that these data are largely based on the lethal responses of a small group of testing lab species. Here we present an alternative approach, based on the hypothesis that organisms' sensitivity to stress is a function of their biology, and can be predicted from species traits such as morphology, life history, physiology and feeding ecology. Using data from the US EPA's AQUIRE database, we found that four species traits explained 71% of the variability in sensitivity to toxicants within a group of 12 species exposed to 15 chemicals. Our results indicate that this approach has promise, but effort is needed to compile species trait information to increase the power, precision and taxonomic representativeness of this approach.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Predicting and observing responses of algal communities to photosystem II-herbicide exposure using pollution-induced community tolerance and species-sensitivity distributions.

Various test strategies are in use in ecotoxicology to assess the potential risks of toxicants on aquatic communities. The species-sensitivity distribution concept (SSD) works by arranging single-species laboratory test data in a cumulative frequency distribution. The pollution-induced community tolerance concept (PICT) uses observable community responses by measuring increases in community tolerance caused by the replacement of sensitive species after exposure. The aim of this study was to compare these two concepts in assessing the effects of three herbicides. Atrazine, prometryn, and isoproturon were found to increase community tolerance by a factor up to six. Atrazine increased community tolerance only at higher test concentrations (0.125 mg L(-1)). Species-sensitivity distributions correspond well to community responses: The median effective concentrations (EC50s) of untreated periphyton communities tested covered 55 to 65% of affected species represented in the SSD. The sensitivities of tolerant algal communities shifted to the right end of the SSDs. In the microcosm experiments, higher test concentrations affected biomass, species numbers, and community structure. Community tolerance could not be induced any further, suggesting that these concentrations represent a maximum of functional redundancy of a functional group. At higher concentrations, even the least-sensitive species are affected. These results can be interpreted as a confirmation of the SSD concept by observed algal community responses, when applied to photosystem II (PSII)-inhibiting herbicides.

Atrazine↗

PubMed2006

The determination of earthworm species sensitivity differences to cadmium genotoxicity using the comet assay.

The concept of species sensitivity differences is important in ecotoxicology and environmental risk assessment, but testing usually focuses on lethality of toxicants. The effects on the suborganismal level are mostly ignored; therefore, the present study assessed a biomarker of genotoxicity (the alkaline comet assay) to compare species sensitivities. Five earthworm species (Amynthas diffringens, Aporrectodea caliginosa, Dendrodrilus rubidus, Eisenia fetida and Microchaetus benhami) were exposed for 48 h to sublethal concentrations of cadmium sulphate in reconstituted soil water and DNA integrity was evaluated with the parameter Tail DNA %. Significant amounts of DNA damage were detected in three (A. caliginosa, D. rubidus and E. fetida) species. E. fetida exhibited the highest level of DNA damage, although D. rubidus showed the highest increase (3-fold) in DNA damage from the control. All exposed earthworms accumulated Cd, although body loads did not correspond with DNA damage levels; most of the Cd was probably sequestrated and rendered harmless.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Bayesian and time-independent species sensitivity distributions for risk assessment of chemicals.

Species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) are increasingly used to analyze toxicity data but have been criticized for a lack of consistency in data inputs, lack of relevance to the real environment, and a lack of transparency in implementation. This paper shows how the Bayesian approach addresses concerns arising from frequentist SSD estimation. Bayesian methodologies are used to estimate SSDs and compare results obtained with time-dependent (LC50) and time-independent (predicted no observed effect concentration) endpoints for the insecticide chlorpyrifos. Uncertainty in the estimation of each SSD is obtained either in the form of a pointwise percentile confidence interval computed by bootstrap regression or an associated credible interval. We demonstrate that uncertainty in SSD estimation can be reduced by applying a Bayesian approach that incorporates expert knowledge and that use of Bayesian methodology permits estimation of an SSD that is more robust to variations in data. The results suggest that even with sparse data sets theoretical criticisms of the SSD approach can be overcome.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Species sensitivity distributions: data and model choice.

Species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) are increasingly incorporated into ecological risk assessment procedures. Although these new techniques offer a more transparent approach to risk assessment they demand more and superior quality data. Issues of data quantity and quality are especially important for marine datasets that tend to be smaller (and have fewer standard test methods) when compared with freshwater data. An additional source of uncertainty when using SSDs is appropriate selection from the range of methods used in their construction. We show through examples the influence of data quantity, data quality, and choice of model. We then show how regulatory decisions may be affected by these factors.

Decision Making↗

PubMed2005

Risk assessment of short-chain chlorinated paraffins in Japan based on the first market basket study and species sensitivity distributions.

The chemical risks of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) to human health and ecological species in Japan were assessed in this study. SCCPs are used as extreme pressure additives in metal-working fluids and flame retardant agents in plastic materials. The first market basket study with a high resolution gas chromatography and mass spectrometry with electron capture negative ionization is reported. Total daily food intakes for Japanese residents of different ages were estimated using Latin Hypercube simulations, and the highest 95th percentile intake is 6.8 x 10(2) ng/kg/day for a 1-year-old child. Based on the reported no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) and the estimated exposure mainly from food, it was concluded thatSCCPs are not posing risks to humans in Japan. Ecological risks to aquatic and sediment organisms were estimated using species sensitivity distributions. The 95th percentiles of the distributions obtained by fitting several environmental SCCP concentration data of river water and sediment were 41.8 ng/L and 558 ng/g wet weight as the possible highest concentrations, respectively. No-observed-effect-concentrations (NOEC) were determined by calculating the fifth percentiles of a species sensitivity distribution, which were 2.2 microg/L for aquatic organisms and 1.7 to 13.5 mg/ kg wet weight for sediment organisms. While it is likely that there is no imminent environmental chemical risk for aquatic organisms at a regional level in Japan, this study concluded that a more detailed risk assessment is necessary for sediment organisms.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Evaluation of different algal species sensitivity to mercury and metolachlor by PAM-fluorometry.

In this study, the pulse-amplitude-modulation (PAM)-fluorometric method was used to evaluate the difference in the sensitivity to mercury (Hg) and metolachlor of six algal species: Ankistrodesmus falcatus, Selenastrum capricornutum, Chlorella vulgaris, Nannoplankton (PLS), Microcystis aeruginosa and Pediastrum biwae. We found that the fluorescence parameters (phiM, the maximal photosystem II (PSII) quantum yield, phi'M, the operational PSII quantum yield at steady state of electron transport, Q(P), the photochemical quenching value, and Q(N), the non-photochemical quenching value) were appropriate indicators for inhibitory effects of mercury but only phi'M and Q(N) were useful for metolachlor. The examined algal species showed very different levels of sensitivity to the effect of Hg and of metolachlor. The most sensitive species to Hg and metolachlor were respectively M. aeruginosa and A. falcatus, while the least sensitive were C. vulgaris and P. biwae. We interpreted these differences by the action mode of pollutants and by the different metabolism properties and morphological characteristics between algal species. These results related to fluorescence parameters may offer useful tool to be used in bioassay for different pollutants. Heterogeneous algal sensitivity to the same pollutant suggests the need to use a battery of species to evaluate the effects of mixtures of pollutants in aquatic systems.

Acetamides↗

PubMed2005

Relevance of generic and site-specific species sensitivity distributions in the current risk assessment procedures for copper and zinc.

Species sensitivity distributions (SSD) were constructed using acute toxicity data of various cladoceran species collected in five different aquatic systems. The aim of this research was to study the relative acute cladoceran community sensitivity in different aquatic systems. Current risk assessment procedures are based upon hypothetical communities and do not take into account variation in species composition and tolerance between aquatic communities. Two metals, copper and zinc, were used as model toxicants. To establish comparative sensitivity, a standard medium (International Organization for Standardization [ISO]) was used. The generic SSD (log-normal distribution) based on toxicity data obtained in this standard medium for all species (collected at all sites) resulted in a hazardous concentrations that protects 95% of the species occurring in a (hypothetical) ecosystem (i.e., hazardous concentration protecting 95% of the species of the hypothetical ecosystem [HC5]) of 6.7 microg Cu L(-1) (90% confidence limits: 4.2-10.8) and 559 microg Zn L(-1) (375-843). This generic SSD was not significantly different from the site-specific SSDs (i.e., constructed with species only occurring at a specific site). Mean community sensitivity (the geometric mean of 48-h 50% effective concentration [EC50] values of species within a community) among sites varied within a factor of 2 (between 17.3 and 23.6 microg Cu L(-1) for Cu and between 973 and 1,808 microg Zn L(-1) for Zn), and HC5s varied within a factor of 4 for copper (between 4.5 and 17.3 microg Cu L(-1)) and 7 for zinc (between 194 and 1,341 microg Zn L(-1)). For copper, the HC50 of our generic SSD was significantly lower than the one based on literature toxicity data of cladoceran species (which were recalculated to the hardness of our standard medium). In contrast, no significant differences were observed between the generic SSD and the literature-based SSD for zinc. It is suggested that the community sensitivity of different cladoceran populations is similar among aquatic systems and is not dependent on the species composition.

Animals↗

PubMed1983

Comparison of digoxin-induced cardiac toxicity in resistant and sensitive species.

We have examined the species-specific arrhythmogenic effects of digoxin in the rat (resistant species) and in the guinea-pig (sensitive species). 26 adult rats and 23 adult guinea-pigs were anaesthetized with pentobarbitone and injected subcutaneously with varying doses of digoxin. Electrocardiograms were monitored continuously for 4 1/2 h following digoxin administration. The arrhythmogenic dose (AD50) and lethal dose 50 under anaesthesia (LD50) were determined using the method of Litchfield & Wilcoxin. AD50 in rats was 13.0 +/- 1.0 mg kg-1 (mean +/- s.d.) compared with 0.60 +/- 0.04 (P less than 0.01) in the guinea-pig and LD50 was 30.0 +/- 1.9 mg kg-1 in the rat compared with 0.60 +/- 0.04 (P less than 0.01) in the guinea-pig. The onset of arrhythmias was not dose-dependent in the rat but was clearly so in the guinea-pig; for example 102 +/- 15 min (mean +/- s.e.m.) following 0.5 mg kg-1, and 43 +/- 2 min following 1 mg kg-1. In the rat the onset of arrhythmias was 54.0 +/- 11.5 min. Supraventricular arrhythmias (paroxysmal atrial tachycardia) appeared in 73% of rats compared with only 18% of guinea-pigs whereas ventricular arrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia), multiple premature ventricular contractions and or multifocal PVC's occurred in 100% of guinea-pigs compared with only 32% of rats. All guinea-pigs that developed arrhythmias died whereas several rats recovered from supraventricular tachycardias. In conclusion, the guinea-pig is much more sensitive to digoxin toxicity than the rat, develops arrhythmias at much lower doses and these arrhythmias are much more likely to be ventricular in origin and cause fatality.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Freshwater to saltwater toxicity extrapolation using species sensitivity distributions.

There is generally a lack of saltwater ecotoxicity data for risk assessment purposes, leaving an unknown margin of uncertainty in saltwater assessments that utilize surrogate freshwater data. Consequently, a need for sound scientific advice on the suitability of using freshwater data to extrapolate to saltwater effects exists. Here we use species sensitivity distributions to determine if freshwater datasets are adequately protective of saltwater species assemblages for 21 chemical substances. For ammonia and the metal compounds among these data, freshwater data were generally protective because freshwater organisms tended to be more sensitive. In contrast, for pesticide and narcotic compounds, saltwater species tended to be more sensitive and a suitable uncertainty factor would need to be applied to surrogate freshwater data. Biological and physicochemical factors contribute to such differences in freshwater and saltwater species sensitivities, but the species compositions of datasets used are also important.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Assessing acute and chronic copper risks to freshwater aquatic life using species sensitivity distributions for different taxonomic groups.

Using copper as an example, we present a method for assessing chemical risks to an aquatic community using species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) for different taxonomic groups. This method fits probability models to chemical exposure and effects data to estimate the percentage of aquatic species potentially at risk and expands on existing probabilistic risk assessment methodologies. Due to a paucity of chronic toxicity data for many chemicals, this methodology typically uses an acute-chronic ratio (ACR) to estimate the chronic effects distribution from the acute effects distribution. We expanded on existing methods in two ways. First, copper SSDs were developed for different organism groups (e.g., insects, fish) that share similar sensitivities or ecological functions. Integration of exposure and effects distributions provides an estimate of which organism groups may be at risk. These results were then compared with a site-specific food web, allowing an estimation of whether key food web components are potentially at risk and whether the overall aquatic community may be at risk from the perspective of ecosystem function. Second, chronic SSDs were estimated using the relationship between copper ACRs and acute toxicity (i.e., the less acutely sensitive a species, the larger the ACR). This correction in the ACR removes concerns previously identified with use of the ACR and allows evaluation of a significantly expanded chronic data set with the same approach as that for assessing acute risks.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Seasonal temperature declines do not decrease periphytic surfactant biodegradation or increase algal species sensitivity.

The effects of seasonally decreasing river water temperature on surfactant biodegradation and algal sensitivity are reviewed from four stream mesocosm studies conducted over a 5-year period. Seasonal temperatures ranged from 28 to 0 degree C over all studies and temperature declines were approximately 9 to 14 degrees C over the course of each individual study. Mesocosm periphyton were naturally colonized on tile substrata with in-flowing river water for a period of 3 to 8 weeks prior to the initiation of sampling. Streams were dosed for 8 to 11 weeks with microgram/L (ppb) quantities of the surfactants C12-alkyl sulfate (C12-AS), C45E2.17S-alkyl ethoxysulfate (AES), C25E6-alkyl ethoxylate (AE) or 0 to 13% final effluent during the sampling period. Mineralization of C12-AS and AE by periphyton in the dosed streams generally increased over the dosing period while mineralization remained approximately constant in the control streams. The results from the AE study occurred with an increase in periphyton heterotrophic respiration. Mineralization of AES increased over the dosing period in streams receiving the highest dose of AES and remained constant in streams receiving lower doses. All studies involving surfactant exposure demonstrated a positive correlation between surfactant concentration and mineralization during periods of seasonal temperature decline. Mineralization of AE by periphyton dosed with final effluent increased slightly over the testing period. Periphytic algal taxonomy and biovolume were evaluated during the AES study. Overall, these tests showed no increases in species sensitivity over the testing period. Taken collectively, these results indicate that there is no correlation between naturally decreasing seasonal temperatures and lower rates of surfactant mineralization or increased species sensitivity by naturally acclimated periphyton.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗

PubMed1992

Recovery of acid-sensitive species of ephemeroptera, plecoptera and trichoptera in river audna after liming.

River Audna has been continuously limed on a full scale basis since 1985. Monitoring of benthic invertebrates of the river showed that the fauna was dominated by acid-tolerant species before liming and during the first year after the start of the treatment. Moderately acid-sensitive species, like Diura nanseni, Isoperla grammatica and Hydropsyche siltalia were found only in small numbers in a few localities in this period. In autumn 1987, the first appearance of the highly acid-sensitive mayfly Baetis rhodani was recorded at two stations in the main river. During the following years, this species colonized other localities and several other sensitive invertebrates, such as Heptagenia sulphurea, Caenis horaria, Hydropsyche pellucidula and Lepidostoma hirtum were also recorded. The change in faunal composition was highly significant compared to unlimed reference stations.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2004

Confirming the species-sensitivity distribution concept for endosulfan using laboratory, mesocosm, and field data.

In Australia, water-quality trigger values for toxicants are derived using protective concentration values based on species-sensitivity distribution (SSD) curves. SSD curves are generally derived from laboratory data with an emphasis on using local or site-specific data. In this study, Australian and non-Australian laboratory-species based SSD curves were compared and the concept of species protection confirmed by comparison of laboratory-based SSD curves with local mesocosm experiments and field monitoring data. Acute LC50 data for the organochlorine pesticide endosulfan were used for these comparisons; SSD curves were fitted using the Burr type III distribution. SSD curves indicated that the sensitivities of Australian fish and arthropods were not significantly different from those of corresponding non-Australian taxa. Arthropod taxa in the mesocosm were less sensitive than taxa in laboratory tests, which suggests that laboratory-generated single-species data may be used to predict concentrations protective of semifield (mesocosm) systems. SSDs based on laboratory data were also protective of field populations.

Animals↗