Biomedical subjects

K Bokvist

Publications and source records attributed to K Bokvist.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2002

Repaglinide at a cellular level.

To investigate the hormonal and cellular selectivity of the prandial glucose regulators, we have undertaken a series of experiments, in which we characterised the effects of repaglinide and nateglinide on ATP-sensitive potassium ion (KATP) channel activity, membrane potential and exocytosis in rat pancreatic alpha-cells and somatotrophs. We found a pharmacological dissociation between the actions on KATP channels and exocytosis and suggest that compounds that, unlike repaglinide, have direct stimulatory effects on exocytosis in somatotrophs and alpha- and beta-cells, such as sulphonylureas and nateglinide, may have a clinically undesirable general stimulatory effect on cells within the endocrine system.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Phentolamine inhibits exocytosis of glucagon by Gi2 protein-dependent activation of calcineurin in rat pancreatic alpha -cells.

Capacitance measurements were used to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which imidazoline compounds inhibit glucagon release in rat pancreatic alpha-cells. The imidazoline compound phentolamine reversibly decreased depolarization-evoked exocytosis >80% without affecting the whole-cell Ca(2+) current. During intracellular application through the recording pipette, phentolamine produced a concentration-dependent decrease in the rate of exocytosis (IC(50) = 9.7 microm). Another imidazoline compound, RX871024, exhibited similar effects on exocytosis (IC(50) = 13 microm). These actions were dependent on activation of pertussis toxin-sensitive G(i2) proteins but were not associated with stimulation of ATP-sensitive K(+) channels or adenylate cyclase activity. The inhibitory effect of phentolamine on exocytosis resulted from activation of the protein phosphatase calcineurin and was abolished by cyclosporin A and deltamethrin. Exocytosis was not affected by intracellular application of specific alpha(2), I(1), and I(2) ligands. Phentolamine reduced glucagon release (IC(50) = 1.2 microm) from intact islets by 40%, an effect abolished by pertussis toxin, cyclosporin A, and deltamethrin. These data suggest that imidazoline compounds inhibit glucagon secretion via G(i2)-dependent activation of calcineurin in the pancreatic alpha-cell. The imidazoline binding site is likely to be localized intracellularly and probably closely associated with the secretory granules.

Adenylate Cyclase Toxin↗

PubMed2001

Gi2 proteins couple somatostatin receptors to low-conductance K+ channels in rat pancreatic alpha-cells.

Somatostatin hyperpolarized rat pancreatic alpha-cells and inhibited spontaneous electrical activity by activating a low-conductance K+ channel (0.9 pS with physiological ionic gradients). This channel was insensitive to tolbutamide (a blocker of ATP-sensitive K+ channels) and apamin (an inhibitor of small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels). Channel activation was prevented by pre-treating the cells with pertussis toxin, indicating the involvement of G-proteins. A direct interaction between an inhibitory G-protein and the somatostatin-activated K+ channel is suggested by the finding that intracellular application of guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTP gamma-S) and the G beta gamma subunit of G-proteins resulted in a transient stimulation of the current. Activation of the K+ current by somatostatin was inhibited by intracellular dialysis with specific antibodies to Gi1/2 and was not seen in cells treated with antisense oligonucleotides against G-proteins of the subtype Gi2. We conclude that somatostatin suppresses alpha-cell electrical activity by a Gi2-protein-dependent mechanism, which culminates in the activation of a sulphonylurea- and apamin-insensitive low-conductance K+ channel.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Tolbutamide stimulates exocytosis of glucagon by inhibition of a mitochondrial-like ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) conductance in rat pancreatic A-cells.

1. Capacitance measurements were used to examine the effects of the sulphonylurea tolbutamide on Ca2+-dependent exocytosis in isolated glucagon-secreting rat pancreatic A-cells. 2. When applied extracellularly, tolbutamide stimulated depolarization-evoked exocytosis 4.2-fold without affecting the whole-cell Ca2+ current. The concentration dependence of the stimulatory action was determined by intracellular application through the recording pipette. Tolbutamide produced a concentration-dependent increase in cell capacitance. Half-maximal stimulation was observed at 33 microM and the maximum stimulation corresponded to a 3.4-fold enhancement of exocytosis. 3. The stimulatory action of tolbutamide was dependent on protein kinase C activity. The action of tolbutamide was mimicked by the general K+ channel blockers TEA (10 mM) and quinine (10 microM). A similar stimulation was elicited by 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD; 10 microM), an inhibitor of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channels. 4. Tolbutamide-stimulated, but not TEA-induced, exocytosis was antagonized by the K+ channel openers diazoxide, pinacidil and cromakalim. 5. Dissipating the transgranular K+ gradient with nigericin and valinomycin inhibited tolbutamide- and Ca2+-evoked exocytosis. Furthermore, tolbutamide- and Ca2+-induced exocytosis were abolished by the H+ ionophore FCCP or by arresting the vacuolar (V-type) H+-ATPase with bafilomycin A1 or DCCD. Finally, ammonium chloride stimulated exocytosis to a similar extent to that obtained with tolbutamide. 6. We propose that during granular maturation, a granular V-type H+-ATPase pumps H+ into the secretory granule leading to the generation of a pH gradient across the granular membrane and the development of a positive voltage inside the granules. The pumping of H+ is facilitated by the concomitant exit of K+ through granular K+ channels with pharmacological properties similar to those of mitochondrial KATP channels. Release of granules that have been primed is then facilitated by the addition of K+ channel blockers. The resulting increase in membrane potential promotes exocytosis by unknown mechanisms, possibly involving granular alkalinization.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Compound exocytosis in voltage-clamped mouse pancreatic beta-cells revealed by carbon fibre amperometry.

Capacitance measurements of exocytosis were combined with carbon fibre amperometry for time-resolved measurements of the properties of secretion in single, insulin-secreting, mouse pancreatic beta-cells pre-loaded with the amine serotonin (5-HT). Glucose-induced electrical activity was associated with the appearance of brief and transient amperometric currents reflecting the serotonin co-released with insulin. The integrated amperometric responses resulting from voltage-clamp depolarisations were proportional to the corresponding increase in cell capacitance. Both parameters exhibited U-shaped relationships to the membrane potential with maximums around 0 mV. There was a variable latency (40-730 ms, average 230 ms) between the onset of the depolarisation and the amperometric current. During high-frequency repetitive stimulation, a progressive decrease in the exocytotic capacity ("depression") was observed. This was paralleled by a corresponding reduction of the amperometric responses. Using the carbon fibre to map the beta-cell for release sites indicated that exocytosis was confined to the part of the cell containing the highest density of secretory granules. Two types of amperometric responses were observed. In about 50% of the cells, a smooth increase was observed with no discernible discrete events. In the remaining cells, the amperometric records contained large spikes. These were ten or more times larger than that expected for the fusion of individual secretory granules. We propose that these large spikes reflect the exocytosis of multigranular complexes formed inside the beta-cell prior to exocytosis.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1999

Selectivity of prandial glucose regulators: nateglinide, but not repaglinide, accelerates exocytosis in rat pancreatic A-cells.

The effects of the two prandial glucose regulators, repaglinide and nateglinide, on ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channel activity, membrane potential and exocytosis in single rat pancreatic A-cells were investigated using the patch-clamp technique. K(ATP) channel activity was reversibly blocked by repaglinide (K(d)=22 nM) and nateglinide (K(d)=410 nM) and this was associated with membrane depolarisation and initiation of electrical activity. The effect of repaglinide and nateglinide on stimulation of glucagon secretion by direct interference with the exocytotic machinery was investigated by the use of capacitance measurements. Nateglinide, but not repaglinide, at concentrations similar to those required to block K(ATP) channels potentiated Ca(2+)-evoked exocytosis 3-fold. In alphaTC1-9 glucagonoma cells addition of nateglinide, but not repaglinide, was associated with stimulation of glucagon secretion. These results indicate that the fast-acting insulin secretagogue nateglinide is glucagonotropic primarily by stimulating Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis.

ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters↗

PubMed1999

CaM kinase II-dependent mobilization of secretory granules underlies acetylcholine-induced stimulation of exocytosis in mouse pancreatic B-cells.

1. Measurements of cell capacitance were used to investigate the mechanisms by which acetylcholine (ACh) stimulates Ca2+-induced exocytosis in single insulin-secreting mouse pancreatic B-cells. 2. ACh (250 microM) increased exocytotic responses elicited by voltage-clamp depolarizations 2.3-fold. This effect was mediated by activation of muscarinic receptors and dependent on elevation of the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) attributable to mobilization of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. The latter action involved interference with the buffering of [Ca2+]i and the time constant (tau) for the recovery of [Ca2+]i following a voltage-clamp depolarization increased 5-fold. As a result, Ca2+ was present at concentrations sufficient to promote the replenishment of the readily releasable pool of granules (RRP; > 0.2 microM) for much longer periods in the presence than in the absence of the agonist. 3. The effect of Ca2+ on exocytosis was mediated by activation of CaM kinase II, but not protein kinase C, and involved both an increased size of the RRP from 40 to 140 granules and a decrease in tau for the refilling of the RRP from 31 to 19 s. 4. Collectively, the effects of ACh on the RRP and tau result in a > 10-fold stimulation of the rate at which granules are supplied for release.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed1999

The stimulatory action of tolbutamide on Ca2+-dependent exocytosis in pancreatic beta cells is mediated by a 65-kDa mdr-like P-glycoprotein.

Intracellular application of the sulfonylurea tolbutamide during whole-cell patch-clamp recordings stimulated exocytosis >5-fold when applied at a cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration of 0.17 microM. This effect was not detectable in the complete absence of cytoplasmic Ca2+ and when exocytosis was elicited by guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTPgammaS). The stimulatory action could be antagonized by the sulfonamide diazoxide, by the Cl--channel blocker 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), by intracellular application of the antibody JSB1 [originally raised against a 170-kDa multidrug resistance (mdr) protein], and by tamoxifen (an inhibitor of the mdr- and volume-regulated Cl- channels). Immunocytochemistry and Western blot analyses revealed that JSB1 recognizes a 65-kDa protein in the secretory granules. This protein exhibited no detectable binding of sulfonylureas and is distinct from the 140-kDa sulfonylurea high-affinity sulfonylurea receptors also present in the granules. We conclude that (i) tolbutamide stimulates Ca2+-dependent exocytosis secondary to its binding to a 140-kDa high-affinity sulfonylurea receptor in the secretory granules; and (ii) a granular 65-kDa mdr-like protein mediates the action. The processes thus initiated culminate in the activation of a granular Cl- conductance. We speculate that the activation of granular Cl- fluxes promotes exocytosis (possibly by providing the energy required for membrane fusion) by inducing water uptake and an increased intragranular hydrostatic pressure.

4,4'-Diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-Disulfonic Acid↗

PubMed1999

Characterisation of sulphonylurea and ATP-regulated K+ channels in rat pancreatic A-cells.

We have monitored whole-cell and single channel ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) currents in isolated rat glucagon-secreting pancreatic A-cells. Tolbutamide produced a concentration-dependent decrease in the whole-cell KATP conductance (Ki = 6 microM) and initiated action potential firing. The K+ channel opener diazoxide, but not cromakalim or pinacidil, inhibited electrical activity and increased the whole-cell K+ conductance fourfold. ATP applied to the intracellular face of the membrane inhibited KATP channel activity with a Ki of 17 microM, an effect that could be counteracted by Mg-ADP and Mg-GDP. GTP and UTP did not affect KATP channel activity. Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate activated KATP channels inhibited by ATP after a delay of 90 s. In situ hybridisation demonstrated the expression of the mRNA encoding KATP channel subunits Kir6.2 and SUR1 but not Kir6.1 and SUR2. We conclude that rat pancreatic A-cells express KATP channels with the nucleotide-, sulphonylurea- and K+ channel-opener sensitivities expected for a channel formed by Kir6.2 and SUR1 subunits.

ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters↗

PubMed1999

Significance of Na/Ca exchange for Ca2+ buffering and electrical activity in mouse pancreatic beta-cells.

We have combined the patch-clamp technique with microfluorimetry of the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) to characterize Na/Ca exchange in mouse beta-cells and to determine its importance for [Ca2+]i buffering and shaping of glucose-induced electrical activity. The exchanger contributes to Ca2+ removal at [Ca2+]i above 1 microM, where it accounts for >35% of the total removal rate. At lower [Ca2+]i, thapsigargin-sensitive Ca2+-ATPases constitute a major (70% at 0.8 microM [Ca2+]i) mechanism for Ca2+ removal. The beta-cell Na/Ca exchanger is electrogenic and has a stoichiometry of three Na+ for one Ca2+. The current arising from its operation reverses at approximately -20 mV (current inward at more negative voltages), has a conductance of 53 pS/pF (14 microM [Ca2+]i), and is abolished by removal of external Na+ or by intracellularly applied XIP (exchange inhibitory peptide). Inhibition of the exchanger results in shortening (50%) of the bursts of action potentials of glucose-stimulated beta-cells in intact islets and a slight (5 mV) hyperpolarization. Mathematical simulations suggest that the stimulatory action of glucose on beta-cell electrical activity may be accounted for in part by glucose-induced reduction of the cytoplasmic Na+ concentration with resultant activation of the exchanger.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1999

Multiple sites of purinergic control of insulin secretion in mouse pancreatic beta-cells.

In mouse pancreatic beta-cells, extracellular ATP (0.1 mmol/l) effectively reduced glucose-induced insulin secretion. This inhibitory action resulted from a direct interference with the secretory machinery, and ATP suppressed depolarization-induced exocytosis by 60% as revealed by high-resolution capacitance measurements. Suppression of Ca2+-dependent exocytosis was mediated via binding to P2Y1 purinoceptors but was not associated with inhibition of the voltage-dependent Ca2+ currents or adenylate cyclase activity. Inhibition of exocytosis by ATP resulted from G-protein-dependent activation of the serine/threonine protein phosphatase calcineurin and was abolished by cyclosporin A and deltamethrin. In contrast to the direct inhibitory action on exocytosis, ATP reduced the whole-cell ATP-sensitive K+ (K(ATP)) current by 30% (via activation of cytosolic phospholipase A2), leading to membrane depolarization and stimulation of electrical activity. The stimulatory effect of ATP also involved mobilization of Ca2+ from thapsigargin-sensitive intracellular stores. We propose that the inhibitory action of ATP, by interacting with the secretory machinery at a level downstream to an elevation in [Ca2+]i, is important for autocrine regulation of insulin secretion in mouse beta-cells.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗

PubMed1998

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor expression in Xenopus oocytes stimulates inositol trisphosphate-dependent intracellular Ca2+ mobilization.

The signal transduction pathway of the cloned human glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor was studied in voltage-clamped Xenopus oocytes. Binding of GLP-1(7-36)amide was associated with cAMP production, increased [Ca2+]i and activation of Ca2+-dependent Cl- current. The effect of GLP-1(7-36)amide reflects intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and was suppressed by injection of the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA and the inositol trisphosphate receptor antagonist heparin. The responses were not mimicked by the adenylate cyclase activator forskolin and unaffected by the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor Rp-cAMPS. We conclude that GLP-1 receptor expression in Xenopus oocytes evokes inositol trisphosphate-dependent intracellular Ca2+ mobilization independent of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway.

Adenylyl Cyclases↗

PubMed1998

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (7-36) amide stimulates exocytosis in human pancreatic beta-cells by both proximal and distal regulatory steps in stimulus-secretion coupling.

The effect of glucagon-like peptide 1(7-36) amide [GLP-1(7-36) amide] on membrane potential, whole-cell ATP-sensitive potassium channel (K[ATP]) and Ca2+ currents, cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration, and exocytosis was explored in single human beta-cells. GLP-1(7-36) amide induced membrane depolarization that was associated with inhibition of whole-cell K(ATP) current. In addition, GLP-1(7-36) amide (and forskolin) produced greater than fourfold potentiation of Ca2+-dependent exocytosis. The latter effect resulted in part (40%) from acceleration of Ca2+ influx through voltage-dependent (L-type) Ca2+ channels. More importantly, GLP-1(7-36) amide (via generation of cyclic AMP and activation of protein kinase A) potentiated exocytosis at a site distal to a rise in the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration. Photorelease of caged cAMP produced a two- to threefold potentiation of exocytosis when the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentrations were clamped at > or =170 nmol/l. The effect of GLP-1(7-36) amide was antagonized by the islet hormone somatostatin. Similar effects on membrane potential, ion conductances, and exocytosis were observed with glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), the second major incretin. The present data suggest that the strong insulinotropic action of GLP-1(7-36) amide and GIP in humans results from its interaction with several proximal as well as distal important regulatory steps in the stimulus-secretion coupling.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Modulation of calcium channels in human erythroblasts by erythropoietin.

Erythropoietin (Epo) induces a dose-dependent increase in intracellular free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) in human erythroblasts, which is dependent on extracellular Ca2+ and blocked by high doses of nifedipine or Ni2+. In addition, pretreatment of human erythroblasts with mouse antihuman erythropoietin receptor antibody but not mouse immunopure IgG blocked the Epo-induced [Ca2+]i increase, indicating the specificity of the Ca2+ response to Epo stimulation. In this study, the erythropoietin-regulated calcium channel was identified by single channel recordings. Use of conventional whole cell patch-clamp failed to detect Epo-induced whole cell Ca2+ current. To minimize washout of cytosolic constituents, we next used nystatin perforated patch, but did not find any Epo-induced whole cell Ca2+ current. Using Ba2+ (30 mmol/L) as charge carrier in cell-attached patches, we detected single channels with unitary conductance of 3.2 pS, reversal potential of +72 mV, and whose unitary current (at +10 mV) increased monotonically with increasing Ba2+ concentrations. Channel open probability did not appreciably change over the voltage range (-50 to +30 mV) tested. Epo (2 U/mL) increased both mean open time (from 4.27 +/- 0.75 to 11.15 +/- 1.80 ms) and open probability (from 0.26 +/- 0.06 to 2.56 +/- 0.59%) of this Ba(2+)-permeable channel. Our data strongly support the conclusion that the Epo-induced [Ca2+]i increase in human erythroblasts is mediated via Ca2+ entry through a voltage-independent Ca2+ channel.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Adrenaline stimulates glucagon secretion in pancreatic A-cells by increasing the Ca2+ current and the number of granules close to the L-type Ca2+ channels.

We have monitored electrical activity, voltage-gated Ca2+ currents, and exocytosis in single rat glucagon-secreting pancreatic A-cells. The A-cells were electrically excitable and generated spontaneous Na+- and Ca2+-dependent action potentials. Under basal conditions, exocytosis was tightly linked to Ca2+ influx through omega-conotoxin-GVIA-sensitive (N-type) Ca2+ channels. Stimulation of the A-cells with adrenaline (via beta-adrenergic receptors) or forskolin produced a greater than fourfold PKA-dependent potentiation of depolarization-evoked exocytosis. This enhancement of exocytosis was due to a 50% enhancement of Ca2+ influx through L-type Ca2+ channels, an effect that accounted for <30% of the total stimulatory action. The remaining 70% of the stimulation was attributable to an acceleration of granule mobilization resulting in a fivefold increase in the number of readily releasable granules near the L-type Ca2+ channels.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Reversible Ca2+-dependent translocation of protein kinase C and glucose-induced insulin release.

It has been reported that protein kinase C (PKC) interacts at multiple sites in beta-cell stimulus-secretion coupling. Nevertheless, there is still controversy concerning the importance of this enzyme in glucose-induced insulin release. The present study was undertaken to clarify whether glucose, directly, or through changes in cytoplasmic free Ca2+ concentration, [Ca2+]i, could promote translocation of PKC from the soluble to the membrane compartment. Whereas glucose, which increases [Ca2+]i, did not affect long-term distribution of PKC activity between soluble and membrane fractions, this distribution was reversibly affected acutely by the Ca2+ concentration in the extraction media. Translocation of PKC to the membrane by incubation of HIT cells for 10 min in the presence of 20 nM phorbol ester 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) resulted in a 5-fold increase in glucose-induced insulin release. This was prevented by 50 nM concentration of the PKC inhibitor staurosporine, provided that the cells were exposed to the inhibitor before the phorbol ester. Cells pretreated with TPA demonstrated increased insulin secretion in response to glucose for several hours. This time course extended beyond the disappearance of [3H]TPA from the cells, which was complete after 1 h. Activation of PKC increased both average insulin release and the amplitude of oscillations 2-fold, but did not affect oscillation frequency. The stimulatory effect of increased PKC activity on insulin release was not matched by changes in [Ca2+]i. We suggest that stimulation of the pancreatic beta-cell with glucose promotes transient translocation of certain PKC isoforms from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane as a direct consequence of the increase in [Ca2+]i. Such a translocation may promote phosphorylation of one or several proteins involved in the regulation of the beta-cell stimulus-secretion coupling. This results in potentiation of glucose-induced activation of insulin exocytosis, an effect then not mediated by an increase in [Ca2+]i per se. Hence, pulsatile insulin release can be obtained under conditions where overall [Ca2+]i does not change, challenging the view that oscillations in [Ca2+ ]i are indeed driving the oscillations in hormone release.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Cooling inhibits exocytosis in single mouse pancreatic B-cells by suppression of granule mobilization.

1. The mechanisms by which cooling inhibits insulin secretion were investigated by capacitance measurements of exocytosis in single mouse pancreatic B-cells maintained in short-term tissue culture. 2. A reduction of the bath temperature from 34 to 24 degrees C produced a gradual inhibition of exocytosis. Inhibition of exocytosis was use dependent rather than time dependent. The steady-state inhibition amounted to 90%, which was paralleled by a 30% reduction of the peak Ca2+ current. 3. The Q10 values (between 27 and 37 degrees C) for inhibition of exocytosis and the peak Ca2+ current amplitude were determined as > 5 and 1.6, respectively. From the temperature dependence of exocytosis, an energy of activation was estimated as 145 kJ mol-1. 4. Suppression of exocytosis was not the result of a reduction of Ca2+ influx. When the Ca2+ currents were blocked by 30% (comparable to that produced by cooling) by using a low concentration of Co2+, exocytosis was reduced by < 25%. 5. Elevation of cytoplasmic free Ca2+, by photorelease of 'caged' Ca2+ from Ca(2+)-nitrophenyl-EGTA preloaded into the B-cell, was equally effective at eliciting exocytosis at 24 and 34 degrees C. 6. Cooling produced 70% inhibition of exocytosis evoked by infusion of Ca2+ through the recording electrode. Omission of either MgATP or cAMP from the electrode solution resulted in a comparable reduction of exocytosis. Cooling had no additional inhibitory effect when exocytosis was already suppressed by removal of cytoplasmic MgATP. 7. Our data indicate that exocytosis of granules already docked beneath the membrane is little affected by cooling in the B-cell. Instead, the high overall temperature sensitivity of insulin secretion arises because the replenishment of the readily releasable pool is temperature dependent.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Endocytosis of secretory granules in mouse pancreatic beta-cells evoked by transient elevation of cytosolic calcium.

1. To investigate the mechanisms regulating the reuptake of secretory granule membranes following regulated exocytosis, we have monitored changes in cell capacitance in single pancreatic beta-cells. 2. Membrane retrieval (endocytosis) occurred both in a continuous manner and in abrupt steps, corresponding to the simultaneous retrieval of 50-100 granules. The large endocytotic steps were associated with a conductance change of about 1 nS which we attribute to the formation of a fission pore with a pore radius of approximately 1 nm. 3. In some cells, we observed large amplitude capacitance fluctuations, suggesting that aggregates of granules are connected to the plasma membrane by a single pore and are subsequently retrieved as a single unit. 4. Endocytosis was evoked by elevation of cytosolic [Ca2+]i, but once initiated, a sustained increase in [Ca2+]i was not required for endocytosis to continue. 5. The [Ca2+]i dependence of exo- and endocytosis was studied by photorelease of Ca2+ from the 'caged' precursor Ca(2+)-nitrophenyl-EGTA (Ca(2+)-NP-EGTA). Both exo- and endocytosis were initiated at between 0.5 and 2 microM Cai(2+). The rate of endocytosis saturated above 2 microM Cai(2+), whereas exocytosis continued to increase up to 4 microM Cai(2+). The maximum rate of endocytosis was < 25% of that of exocytosis. 6. Unlike exocytosis, endocytosis proceeded equally well in the presence or absence of Mg-ATP. 7. Our data indicate that in the pancreatic beta-cell, exocytosis and endocytosis are regulated by different mechanisms.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗