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P G Aitken

Publications and source records attributed to P G Aitken.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1998

Volume changes induced by osmotic stress in freshly isolated rat hippocampal neurons.

The degree to which osmotic stress changes the volume of mammalian central neurons has not previously been determined. We isolated CA1 pyramidal cells and measured cell volume in four different ways. Extracellular osmolarity (pio) was lowered by omitting varying amounts of NaCl and raised by adding mannitol; the extremes of pio tested ranged from 134 to 396 mosm/kg. When pio was reduced, cell swelling varied widely. We distinguished three types of cells according to their response: "yielding cells" whose volume began to increase immediately; "delayed response cells" which swelled after a latent period of 2 min or more; and "resistant cells" whose volume did not change during exposure to hypo-osmotic solution. When pio was raised, most cells shrank slowly, reaching minimal volume in 15-20 min. We observed neither a regulatory volume decrease nor an increase. We conclude that the water permeability of the membrane of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons is low compared to that of other cell types. The mechanical support of the plasma membrane given by the cytoskeleton may contribute to the resistance to swelling and protect neurons against swelling-induced damage.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Similar propagation of SD and hypoxic SD-like depolarization in rat hippocampus recorded optically and electrically.

Neuron membrane changes and ion redistribution during normoxic spreading depression (SD) induced, for example, by potassium injection, closely resemble those that occur during hypoxic SD-like depolarization (HSD) induced by oxygen withdrawal, but the degree to which the two phenomena are related is controversial. We used extracellular electrical recording and imaging of intrinsic optical signals in hippocampal tissue slices to compare 1) initiation and spread of these two phenomena and 2) the effects of putative gap junction blocking agents, heptanol and octanol. Both events arose focally, after which a clear advancing wave front of increased reflectance and DC shift spread along the CA1 stratum radiatum and s. oriens. The rate of spread was similar: conduction velocity of normoxic SD was 8.73 +/- 0.92 mm/min (mean +/- SE) measured electrically and 5.84 +/- 0.63 mm/min measured optically, whereas HSD showed values of 7.22 +/- 1.60 mm/min (electrical) and 6.79 +/- 0.42 mm/min (optical). When initiated in CA1, normoxic SD consistently failed to enter the CA3 region (7/7 slices) and could not be initiated by direct KC1 injection in the CA3 region (n = 3). Likewise, the hypoxic SD-like optical signal showed onset in the CA1 region and halted at the CA1/CA3 boundary (9/9 slices), but in some (4/9) slices the dentate gyrus region showed a separate onset of signal changes. Microinjection into CA1 stratum radiatum of octanol (1 mM), which when bath applied arrests the spread of normoxic SD, created a small focus that appeared to be protected from hypoxic depolarization. However, bath application of heptanol (3 mM) or octanol (2 mM) did not prevent the spread of HSD, although the onset was delayed. This suggests that, although gap junctions may be essential for the spread of normoxic SD, they may play a less important role in the spread of HSD.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Heptanol but not fluoroacetate prevents the propagation of spreading depression in rat hippocampal slices.

We investigated whether heptanol and other long-chain alcohols that are known to block gap junctions interfere with the generation or the propagation of spreading depression (SD). Waves of SD were triggered by micro-injection of concentrated KCl solution in stratum (s.) radiatum of CA1 of rat hippocampal tissue slices. DC-coupled recordings of extracellular potential (V0) were made at the injection and at a second site approximately 1 mm distant in st. radiatum and sometimes also in st. pyramidale. Extracellular excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) were evoked by stimulation of the Schaffer collateral bundle; in some experiments, antidromic population spikes were evoked by stimulation of the alveus. Bath application of 3 mM heptanol or 5 mM hexanol completely and reversibly prevented the propagation of the SD-related potential shift (delta V0) without abolishing the delta V0 at the injection site. Octanol (1 mM) had a similar but less reliably reversible effect. fEPSPs were depressed by approximately 30% by heptanol and octanol, 65% by hexanol. Antidromic population spikes were depressed by 30%. In isolated, patchclamped CA1 pyramidal neurons, heptanol partially and reversibly depressed voltage-dependent Na currents possibly explaining the slight depression of antidromic spikes and, by acting on presynaptic action potentials, also the depression of fEPSPs. Fluoroacetate (FAc), a putative selective blocker of glial metabolism, first induced multiple spike firing in response to single afferent volleys and then severely suppressed synaptic transmission (confirming earlier reports) without depressing the antidromic population spike. FAc did not inhibit SD propagation. The effect of alkyl alcohols is compatible with the idea that the opening of normally closed neuronal gap junctions is required for SD propagation. Alternative possible explanations include interference with the lipid phase of neuron membranes. The absence of SD inhibition by FAc confirms that synaptic transmission is not necessary for the propagation of SD, and it suggests that normally functioning glial cells are not essential for SD generation or propagation.

Alcohols↗
PubMed1996

Hypertonic environment prevents depolarization and improves functional recovery from hypoxia in hippocampal slices.

Treatments that postpone hypoxic spreading depression (SD)-like depolarization (also called anoxic depolarization) facilitate recovery of function after transient cerebral hypoxia. Hypertonia reduces cerebral excitability, and we tested whether it also offers protection against SD-like depolarization and hypoxia. Oxygen was withdrawn from hippocampal slices bathed in normal artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) and, simultaneously, from slices cut from the same hippocampus but bathed in strongly hypertonic ACSF. Extracellular osmolarity (pi(o)) was increased by adding 100 mM mannitol or fructose to ACSF. Slices in normal pi(o) underwent SD-like negative extracellular voltage shift (delta Vo). The hypertonic slices usually showed no SD-like delta Vo but only a small, gradual negative voltage shift. Hypertonia also prevented the precipitate drop of interstitial calcium level ([Ca2+]o). When oxygenation and normal osmolarity were restored, synaptic transmission in the previously hypertonic slices recovered completely, but 3 h after reoxygenation orthodromically transmitted population spikes of the control slices recovered only 25.1% of the initial control amplitude. We conclude that hypertonic treatment during hypoxia improves subsequent recovery of synaptic function. The protection is probably due to the prevention of calcium uptake by blocking the SD-like depolarization, with the prevention of hypoxic cell swelling playing a lesser role.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

The extent and mechanism of the loss of function caused by strongly hypotonic solutions in rat hippocampal slices.

To investigate whether prolonged severe swelling would cause irreversible injury to neurons, we exposed hippocampal tissue slices to hypotonic solutions (142 mosmol/kg) and followed the recovery of evoked responses for 5 h. Orthodromically evoked responses increased during hypotonia, except during recurrent waves of spreading depression (SD). After restoring normal osmotic pressure (pi o), evoked potentials became profoundly depressed. Following 30 min exposure, nearly maximal orthodromic responses recovered completely but responses to submaximal stimuli remained depressed, indicating elevated threshold. Following 60 min exposure, orthodromic transmission remained depressed. In slices from young animals, antidromic population spikes recovered completely, but in slices from older rats they remained partly depressed. Withdrawing calcium and raising magnesium concentration before and during hypotonic exposure resulted in modest but significant improvement of the recovery of synaptically transmitted responses, but made no difference for antidromic responses. With [Ca2+]o reduced and [Mg2+]o elevated, electrographic seizures replaced the episodes of SD during low pi o treatment. We conclude that even 60 min of severe hypotonic swelling did not kill CA1 pyramidal cells in tissue from young rats, but in its aftermath synaptic transmission was disrupted. Uptake of calcium may have played a minor role in the impairment of synaptic transmission. We propose hypothetically that post-hypotonic shrinkage of dendrites disrupted the integrity of excitatory synapses.

Aging↗
PubMed1995

Hypotonic exposure enhances synaptic transmission and triggers spreading depression in rat hippocampal tissue slices.

Low extracellular osmotic pressure (pi o) is known to enhance CNS responsiveness and the chance of seizures, but the mechanism of the hyperexcitability is not clear. We recorded evoked potentials in st. radiatum and st. pyramidale of CA1. Tissue electrical resistance (Ro) was determined from the voltage drop (VRo) evoked by constant current pulses. Lowering of pi o by reducing [NaCl] caused a concentration-dependent increase of amplitude and duration of extracellular excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs). fEPSPs increased much more than did VRo, but antidromic population spikes increased in proportion to VRo. fEPSP increased also in isosmotic low NaCl (fructose or mannitol substituted) solutions, but not as much as in low pi o. In moderately hypotonic solutions orthodromic population spikes increased as expected from the augmented fEPSP, but in strong hypotonia input-output curves shifted to the left and single stimuli evoked multiple population spikes, indicating lowering of threshold of postsynaptic neurons. Blocking N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors did not diminish the enhancement of fEPSP amplitude. Spreading depression (SD) erupted in most slices in very low pi o, but not in isoosmotic low [NaCl] solutions. We conclude that the hypotonic enhancement of EPSPs depends, in part, on the lowering of [Na+]o and/or of [Cl-]o, and it may be augmented by dendritic swelling favoring electrotonic spread of EPSPs from dendrites to somata, and buildup of transmitter concentration due to swelling of perisynaptic glia. SD can be initiated by cell swelling, but the depolarization associated with SD is probably not caused by the opening of stretch-gated ion channels.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Interstitial space, electrical resistance and ion concentrations during hypotonia of rat hippocampal slices.

1. The degree to which mammalian brain cells swell in hypotonic environments has not previously been determined. We exposed hippocampal tissue slices prepared from anaesthetized rats to artificial cerebrospinal fluid from which varying amounts of NaCl had been deleted. Interstitial volume (ISV) change was determined from the volume of dilution of the marker ions tetramethylammonium (TMA+) or tetraethylammonium (TEA+). Tissue electrical resistance was measured as the voltage generated by constant current pulses. 2. ISV decreased as a function of lowered extracellular osmolality (osmotic pressure, pi o), indicating cell swelling. After reaching a minimum, ISV recovered partially, suggesting regulatory volume decrease of cells. After restoring normal pi o the ISV expanded, indicating post-hypotonic cell shrinkage. The electrical resistance of the tissue (Ro) increased when pi o was lowered, due to the reduced ionic strength, as well as restricted ISV. 3. To control for low NaCl concentration, reduced NaCl was replaced by mannitol or fructose. In isosmotic, NaCl-deficient solution, ISV showed inconsistent change, and Ro corrected for ionic strength tended to decrease. 4. Extracellular K+ concentration decreased slightly in low pi o except when spreading depression caused it to increase. Extracellular Ca2+ concentration decreased substantially, consistently and reversibly. Administration of isosmotic low-NaCl concentration solutions caused a similar decrease in extracellular Ca2+ concentrations. We propose that low Na+ concentration in extracellular fluid impaired the extrusion of Ca2+. 5. In severely hypotonic solution, ISV was reduced to 25% of its control volume, corresponding to a mean cell volume increase of at least 11%, probably more. From plotting relative changes in ISV against osmolarity we concluded that, within the range tested, hypotonic cell swelling was not opposed by the close approach of plasma membranes of neighbouring cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Optical mapping of translucence changes in rat hippocampal slices during hypoxia.

We have evaluated the effects of hypoxia on changes in light transmittance (delta T/T) in rat hippocampal interface slices at 36 degrees C, using a digital imaging system. Slice translucence increased only slightly (delta T/T = 4.65% in CA1; control 2.27%) during brief hypoxia in which hypoxic spreading depression-like depolarization was not induced. If hypoxia duration was sufficient to trigger spreading depression in CA1, slice translucence increased rapidly in CA1 (delta T/T = 27.5%) and smaller, delayed changes were noted in other regions. These spreading depression-induced changes reversed slowly to control levels upon reoxygenation. Measurement of intrinsic optical signals revealed both spatial and temporal patterns of cell volume changes associated with hypoxia and spreading depression in hippocampus.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Looking for chaos in brain slices.

Many signals measured from the nervous system exhibit apparently random variability that is usually considered to be noise. The development of chaos theory has revealed that such random appearing variability may not, in fact, be random, but rather may be deterministic behavior that can reveal important information about the system's underlying mechanisms. We present some new methods for distinguishing determinism from randomness in experimental data, and we apply these methods to population neural responses recorded from hippocampal tissue slices.

Brain↗
PubMed1995

Preparative methods for brain slices: a discussion.

Criteria for slice health and factors that affect slice health were discussed by many of the participants in the conference. In addition to the standard parameters of slice health (energy metabolism, morphology, electrophysiological responsiveness) more subtle but possibly equally important manifestations of slice health were discussed. These included protein synthesis, and more subtle changes, of which we are becoming increasingly aware. The latter include synthesis of stress-related proteins, altered levels of phosphorylation, altered levels of proteolysis. These last were only touched on, but it is becoming apparent they do in fact constitute important manifestations of differences between the slice preparation and the in vivo tissue. They may well lead to quite different responses in slices from those that occur in vivo. While many ways of optimizing slice wellness were discussed, there was a fair consensus that certain adjustments will optimize the most widely measured aspects of cell function. These include the following, wherever possible. Use of young animals, use of the interface chamber, preparing slices with the vibratome, pre-treating animals with ice-cold cardiac perfusion before sacrificing, using pre-incubation media which reduce NMDA receptor activation, free radical formation and cell swelling. When possible these treatments should perhaps be continued into the normal incubation. This being said, many viewpoints were actually expressed in the discussion, and it should be read to get a feel for the usefulness of the different approaches.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Stochastic versus deterministic variability in simple neuronal circuits: II. Hippocampal slice.

Long time series of Schaffer collateral to CA1 pyramidal cell presynaptic volleys (stratum radiatum) and population spikes (stratum pyramidale) were evoked (driven) in rat hippocampal slices. From the driven CA1 region in normal [K+] perfusate, both population spike amplitude and an input-output function consisting of population spike amplitude divided by the presynaptic volley amplitude were analyzed. Raising [K+] in the perfusion medium to 8.5 mM, slices were induced to spontaneously burst fire in CA3 and long time series of inter-burst intervals were recorded. Three tests for determinism were applied to these series: a discrete adaptation of a local flow approach, a local dispersion approach, and nonlinear prediction. Surrogate data were generated to serve as mathematical and statistical controls. All of the population spike (6/6) and input-output (6/6) time series from the normal [K+] driven circuitry were stochastic by all three methods. Although most of the time series (5/6) from the autonomously bursting high [K+] state failed to demonstrate evidence of determinism, one (1/6) of these time series did demonstrate significant determinism. This single instance of predictability could not be accounted for by the linear correlation in these data.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1994

Interstitial volume changes during spreading depression (SD) and SD-like hypoxic depolarization in hippocampal tissue slices.

1. Relative interstitial volume (ISV) was estimated from the concentration changes of iontophoretically administered tetramethyl- and tetraethylammonium (TMA+ and TEA+). Spreading depression (SD) was provoked by high K+, and hypoxic SD-like depolarization (HSD) was induced by withdrawing oxygen. 2. Probe ion concentrations increased dramatically and about equally during SD and HSD, except that in a few hypoxic trials signals became transiently smaller than control. Interstitial volume appeared to decrease on the average by approximately 70%. 3. The ISV that remains patent in CA1 region at the height of SD is < 4% of total tissue volume. Probe ions may occasionally have passed through cell membranes for a short time during hypoxic SD.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Membrane currents in CA1 pyramidal cells during spreading depression (SD) and SD-like hypoxic depolarization.

We used the patch clamp technique in whole-cell configuration to investigate the membrane current and membrane resistance of neurons in rat hippocampal tissue slices during spreading depression (SD) induced by high K+ solution or electrical stimulation and during SD-like depolarization caused by hypoxia. The potential of the patch pipette was referred to an extracellular micropipette electrode to ensure control of the true membrane potential during large shifts of extracellular potential, delta Vo. During both hypoxic and normoxic SD, increase of holding current indicated a large inward current which reached a mean maximum of about 1.75 nA. This virtual inward current started and ended at the same time as the extracellularly recorded negative delta Vo shift, but the trajectories of the two differed. When the membrane was clamped at strongly positive potential, the current during SD was outward. The average apparent reversal potential of the current during SD was near zero but in individual cases varied from -26 mV to + 12 mV. During SD the input resistance decreased on the average to 43% of the resting control value. The decrease of the input resistance was not voltage dependent. The increase of holding current and decrease of resistance occurred with both Cs- and K-gluconate recording pipettes and was not suppressed by 2 mM intracellular QX-314. Voltage-gated currents disappeared during SD; a small, Cs(+)-resistant outward rectifying current was the last to be lost. During recovery, reversal potential and input resistant overshot the control level and then returned to normal within about 5 min. The data are consistent with change of both driving potential and conductance for several ions, but the decrease of overall membrane resistance was less than earlier estimates with other methods had suggested. Normoxic SD and hypoxic SD-like depolarization could not be distinguished by these tests.

Anesthetics, Local↗
PubMed1993

Role of calcium channels in spreading depression in rat hippocampal slices.

In the CA1 region of rat hippocampal slices, spreading depression (SD) was provoked by a brief period of hypoxia or by localized application of high potassium solution. We measured extracellular DC voltage (Vo), extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]o) and/or extracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]o). SD was provoked under control conditions and also when voltage-gated Ca2+ channels were blocked by application of 2 mM Ni2+ or Co2+. In some experiments, CPP, DNQX, or the two together were also applied to block glutamate receptor-coupled channels. When SD was provoked by hypoxia, these treatments significantly increased the latency of SD onset and decreased the amplitudes of the accompanying delta Vo, delta [Ca2+]o and delta [K+]o. Hypoxia-induced SD was never blocked completely, however and delta [Ca2+]o was reduced at most by 50%. When SD was provoked by application of high K+ solution near the recording site, Ni2+ or Co2+ partially suppressed the Vo and [Ca2+]o shifts but did not block SD altogether. When high K+ solution was applied at a distance, Ni2+ or Co2+ blocked the propagation of SD to the recording site. We conclude that during SD, a significant proportion of the calcium ions flowing into neurons does not pass through voltage-gated or glutamate receptor-linked channels.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Cellular physiology of hypoxia of the mammalian central nervous system.

We began this brief review with a condensed summary of the responses of mammalian central neurons to hypoxic insult and then described our recent studies aimed at solving the biophysical basis of these responses. We distinguished three main phases of cerebral hypoxia. First, withdrawal of oxygen is rapidly followed by failure of synaptic transmission. Second, there is massive depolarization of cells, resembling the SD of Leão. Timely reoxygenation can still restore function. If, however, SD-like depolarization continues beyond a critical time, the third phase, irreversible loss of responsiveness, sets in. Cell loss is initially highly selective. Finally, upon reoxygenation, some neurons, which at first appear normal, then undergo a sequence of changes leading to delayed neuron degeneration. The principal cause of early synaptic failure is the depression of synaptic potentials. This can be attributed to reduced release of transmitter substance, in turn caused by failure of the opening of voltage-dependent calcium channels in presynaptic terminals. Calcium-channel failure is probably caused either by a rise of intracellular free calcium activity, depletion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels in presynaptic terminals, or a combination of both. Conduction block in presynaptic fiber terminals can, in some situations, contribute to synaptic failure. In some (postsynaptic) neuron membranes, conductance for potassium increases, raising the firing threshold and hastening the failure of excitatory synaptic transmission. Hypoxic SD-like depolarization is a complex but stereotyped and explosive event. The longer the depolarization lasts, the smaller the chance for functional recovery after reoxygenation. The least likely to recover are those cells that undergo SD the earliest. Prolonged intracellular accumulation of free calcium, admitted into the cells by the SD-like membrane change, plays a key role in causing neuron damage (Fig. 8). Some antagonists of NMDA receptors and blockers of sodium, calcium, and potassium channels influence the onset and magnitude of SD-like hypoxic depolarization, but no known drug prevents it. The irreversible neuron damage that occurs during hypoxia should be distinguished from delayed postischemic injury that occurs after initial apparent recovery. The delayed process can proceed even in the controlled environment of isolated hippocampal tissue slices, but it can be prevented in vitro by NMDA receptor antagonist drugs. In the clinical management of cerebral ischemia not only the intrinsic neuronal degenerative process, but also the deteriorating extracellular milieu, needs to be treated, and the latter may not be improved by NMDA receptor blockade.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Whole-cell membrane current and membrane resistance during hypoxic spreading depression.

In rat hippocampal tissue slices we recorded extracellular potential (Vo) and whole-cell patch clamp current of CA1 pyramid cells. During hypoxic spreading depression (SD)-like depolarization, the holding current (Ih) increased sharply. Membrane 'slope' resistance (Rm) decreased to 10-67% (mean 39%) of the resting value. The SD-related membrane current (ISD) reversed near zero mV. With voltage dependent K+ and Na+ currents blocked by Cs+ and QX-314, shifts of Ih and decrease of Rm during SD were not suppressed. We conclude that hypoxic SD of CA1 pyramidal cells is associated with a large non-selective inward current through yet to be identified membrane mechanisms, which cannot fully explain the SD-related Vo shift.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Mechanism of spreading depression: a review of recent findings and a hypothesis.

Spreading depression of Leão (SD) can be provoked by numerous nonspecific mechanical, electrical, and chemical stimuli. A similar, if not identical, phenomenon can be provoked by hypoxia. SD is characterized by drastic depolarization of neurons, severe reduction of membrane resistance, and redistribution of ions across cell membranes. Glial cells also depolarize but retain membrane resistance. Tetraethylammonium hastens the onset of hypoxic SD but reduces the sustained potential shift and K+ outflow from cells; 4-aminopyridine also accelerates SD but has no effect on the voltage shift. N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists delay the onset of SD, while nickel and cobalt reduce the amplitude of SD-related redistribution of Ca2+. Yet, no specific blocker of SD has been found. Microdialysis of high-K+ solution in hippocampal CA1 region induces recurrent waves of SD propagating semi-independently in adjacent tissue layers, and a prolonged unstable depressed state that has not previously been described. Neither the release of K+ ions nor of glutamate is the unique agent of SD propagation. On the basis of recent findings we propose a hypothetical sequence of events that reconcile many of the previously seemingly paradoxical observations.

Animals↗