PubMed · 7534895
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J J Pindborg. 1994. Focal epithelial hyperplasia.. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(94)90080-9
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BACKGROUND: While Zika virus (ZIKV) is mainly transmitted by mosquitoes, numerous cases of sexual transmission have been reported during recent outbreaks. Little is known about which host cell types or entry factors aid in mediating this sexual transmission. METHODS: In this study, we investigated ZIKV cell tropism by infecting 2 types of human prostate cells with 3 contemporary ZIKV isolates from persons infected in the Americas. We used real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and immunofluorescence analyses to measure infection and flow cytometry to detect entry factor expression. RESULTS: Here we show that ZIKV infects, replicates, and produces infectious virus in prostate stromal mesenchymal stem cells, epithelial cells, and organoids made with a combination of these cells. We also show that prostate cells express several well-characterized flavivirus attachment factors. In contrast, dengue virus does not infect or does not replicate in these prostate cells, although it is known to use similar receptors. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that ZIKV favors infection of stromal cells more so than epithelial cells in organoids, possibly indicating a preference for stem cells in general. Overall, these results suggest that ZIKV replication occurs in the human prostate and can account for ZIKV secretion in semen, thus leading to sexual transmission.
More than a dozen tobamoviruses are known. In nature, each species probably survives by moving between several closely related host species. Each infected plant contains a population of variants, but in most host populations the tobamovirus population is stable. The phylogenetic relationships of tobamovirus species broadly correlate with those of their angiosperm hosts. The simplest explanation for this correlation is that they have coevolved with the angiosperms, and hence, like them, are about 120-140 million years old. Gene sequence differences between species also indicate that the tobamoviruses are an ancient genus. Their gene sequences, and the protein motifs they encode, link them to tobraviruses, hordeiviruses and soil-borne wheat mosaic virus, more distantly to the tricornaviruses, and even to hepatitis virus E and other furoviruses, rubiviruses and alphaviruses. Their progenitors may have been associated with charophycean algae, and perhaps also plasmodiophoromycete fungi.
The Americas harbor a very great diversity of indigenous language stocks, many more than are found in any other continent. J. Nichols [(1990) Language 66, 475-521] has argued that this diversity indicates a great time depth of in situ evolution. She thus infers that the colonization of the Americas must have begun around 35,000 years ago. This estimate is much earlier than the date for which there is strong archaeological support, which does not much exceed 12,000 years. Nichols' assumption is that the diversity of linguistic stocks increases linearly with time. This paper compares the major continents of the world to show that this assumption is not correct. In fact, stock diversity is highest in the Americas, which are by consensus the youngest continents, intermediate in Australia and New Guinea, and lowest in Africa and Eurasia where the time depth is greatest. If anything, then, after an initial radiation, stock diversity decreases with time. A simple model is outlined that predicts these dynamics. It assumes that early in the peopling of continents, there are many unfilled niches for communities to live in, and so fissioning into new lineages is frequent. As the habitat is filled up, the rate of fissioning declines and lineage extinction becomes the dominant evolutionary force.