PubMed · 8461590
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F Melsen, T Steiniche. 1993. Bone histomorphometry.. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01621876
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Postmenopausal osteoporosis is linked clearly to estrogen deprivation. Recent research has identified estrogen receptors in bone cells and in other organ systems that help to regulate bone remodeling and calcium homeostasis. Long-term use of estrogen in appropriate doses reduces the risk of hip fractures by 50% to 60% and the risk of vertebral deformation by 90%. This protective effect is maintained as long as estrogen is taken and adequate levels of biologically active estrogen are achieved. Thus, the type, dose, and route of administration of estrogen need to be individualized and the efficacy of treatment monitored by annual bone density testing and selective ultilization of biochemical bone markers. The ability of estrogen therapy to increase bone mass is enhanced by added androgens and progestin therapy, calcium supplementation, and exercise.
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An Iron Age (megalithic) skull recovered from a cist burial complex at Agripalle, Andhra Pradesh, India, exhibits extensive erosion of the calvarium, areas of sclerotic diploe, irregular osteitic and periosteitic lesions, and deep ulcerations with a granulomatous appearance of nodular foci due to bone remodeling. These lesions are found over the entire surface, but are less severe in the temporal region and in the occipital region below lambda. There is extensive ulceration and destruction of the orbital roof and the nasopalatine region. A thick bony mass representing a healed lesion is present on the nasal margin. Comparison with the pathologic skeletal series of Ortner and Putschar ([1981] Smithson. Contrib. Anthropol. 28:180-218), Steinbock ([1976] Paleopathology: Diagnosis and Interpretation, pp.86-169), and Calvin ([1964] Bones and Disease: Evidence of Disease and Abnormality in Early Man) indicates that these findings warrant a diagnosis of an advanced stage of treponematosis. The material from Agripalle, together with similar specimens recovered from the sites of Bhimbetka (Iron Age) and Inamgaon (Chalcolithic), furnish additional evidence supporting the hypothesis of the prehistoric antiquity of treponemal disease in both the New and Old Worlds.