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PubMed1994

Congenital toxoplasmosis in the Balb/c mouse: prevention of vertical disease transmission and fetal death by vaccination.

Vertical disease transmission only occurs in Balb/c mice infected with Toxoplasma gondii for the first time during pregnancy. This is similar to the situation in humans, where a previous infection with T. gondii tends to give life-long immunity against reinfection and fetal disease transmission. The Balb/c mouse therefore provides a suitable model to study the effectiveness of T. gondii vaccine candidates. A soluble tachyzoite antigen (STAg) preparation was used to vaccinate female Balb/c mice. STAg was inoculated subcutaneously into Balb/c mice in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), emulsified in Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA), or entrapped within non-ionic surfactant vesicles (NISV). While all inocula induced cellular immunity as measured by parasite-specific spleen cell proliferation in vitro, the highest mean proliferative values were observed in spleens from mice where NISV had been used as the adjuvant and the lowest values were observed where FCA had been used. More importantly, cultures from the NISV/STAg vaccinated mice produced significantly more gamma-interferon than the other experimental groups. This vaccine formulation was therefore identified as that most likely to induce protective immunity against toxoplasmosis. Mice were inoculated subcutaneously with either NISV/STAg or STAg in PBS 4 and 2 weeks before mating and infected orally with 20 tissue cysts of T. gondii on day 12 of pregnancy. The incidence of fetal infection and death in these mice and non-vaccinated infected dams was compared. Of 84 pups born to 14 non-vaccinated dams 45 were viable, of which 18 were found to be infected on reaching maturity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Abortion, Veterinary↗
PubMed1982

Dose response experiments using the mouse tail model.

Radiation induced tail necrosis in BALB/c mice was used to investigate the effects of tissue temperature and local oxygenation on the radiation response. Single doses of 250 kV roentgen-rays were given over the temperature range 32.5 to 37 degrees C and dose response curves obtained. The temperature dependence of the response was shown to be consistent with changing hypoxic status by the derivation of a simple model; this has practical implications for the treatment of patients using simultaneously combined radiation therapy and hyperthermia.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Food anticipatory activity and photic entrainment in food-restricted BALB/c mice.

The BALB/c mouse was evaluated as a model for the study of entrainment of circadian rhythms by feeding schedules. Mice were housed in a 12:12-h light-dark (LD) environment with food available for 3-5 h/day (5 h before dark onset). Food anticipatory activity (FAA) rhythms were evident in all mice, ranging from robust in some to weak and variable in others. Advancing transients of the end of nocturnal activity were evident in many cases, culminating in a significant shortening of the main bout of nocturnal activity. Transients and contraction of nocturnal activity were not dependent on the expression of FAA. Following restricted feeding, nocturnal activity expanded by a series of delaying transients. On the first day of constant dark (DD) with ad libitum food access following restricted feeding in LD, the phase from which activity free-ran was advanced by comparison with control tests. Transients, compressed nocturnal activity, and advanced phase of free-run suggest that feeding schedules cause phase advancement of light-entrained rhythms in BALB/c mice. When restricted feeding was imposed in DD, several mice expressed robust FAA concurrent with a free-running activity component. In some cases, free-running rhythms entrained to feeding time, and in other cases, the period of the free run lengthened toward 24 h. These data show that restricted feeding in BALB/c mice can engage a circadian mechanism driving FAA rhythms and can also modulate the phase of photic entrainment, possibly by a direct entraining effect on the light-entrained rhythm. The BALB/c mouse strain, in several respects, appears to be a useful model for the study of scheduled feeding and circadian rhythms.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Synergistic bone marrow toxicity of pyrimethamine and zidovudine in murine in vivo and in vitro models: mechanism of toxicity.

Pyrimethamine (Pyr) is commonly used for treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS patients; however, in two clinical studies, an increased number of deaths were observed when Pyr was coadministered with zidovudine (ZDV). The BALB/c mouse was chosen as a model to study the mechanism underlying the unexpected toxicity from coadministration of these drugs. Daily administration by oral gavage of 60 mg/kg Pyr and 240 mg/kg ZDV resulted in 100% lethality after 30 days. These dose levels produced no effect when the drugs were given individually for the same period. Administration of combinations of Pyr and ZDV resulted in macrocytic anemia and leukopenia with synergistic decreases in lymphocyte and neutrophil numbers. To examine the mechanism of this hematotoxicity at the cellular level, mouse bone marrow colony-forming unit (mCFU) assays were employed. A combination of ZDV with various concentrations of Pyr resulted in synergistic decreases in numbers of erythroid and granulocyte-macrophage precursors (mCFU-E and mCFU-GM). mCFU-GM precursors appeared more sensitive than erythroid precursors to combinations of Pyr and ZDV. Incorporation of (14)C-ZDV into cellular DNA was increased in a dose-dependent manner in the presence of increasing concentrations of Pyr in the mCFU-GM assay. This suggested that inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase by Pyr and accompanying inhibition of dTTP synthesis allows preferential incorporation of ZDV into DNA, with resulting strand breakage and cell death. (14)C-ZDV incorporation was also observed when human GM cultures were analyzed, however, incorporation was less and required higher concentrations of Pyr.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2002

Adoptive transfer of BALb/c mouse splenocytes reduces lesion severity and induces intestinal pathophysiologic changes in the Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis beige/scid mouse model.

Successful immune reconstitution would enhance resistance of beige/scid mice to chronic infection with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis, but may cause damage to intestinal tissue. Therefore, we investigated the effect of adoptive transfer of BALB/c mouse splenocytes on lesion severity and intestinal physiology in beige/scid mice infected with M. paratuberculosis. Mice were inoculated intraperitoneally (i.p.) with M. paratuberculosis, and two weeks later were inoculated i.p. with viable spleen cells from immune-competent BALB/c mice. Mice were necropsied 12 weeks after infection when engraftment of lymphocytes, clinical disease, pathologic lesions, and intestinal electrophysiologic parameters were evaluated. Lymphocytes were rare in control beige/scid mice not inoculated with spleen cells. In contrast, high numbers of CD4+, CD8+, and B220+ lymphocytes were detected in the spleen of all beige/scid mice (n = 24) inoculated with spleen cells, indicating that adoptive transfer resulted in successful engraftment of donor lymphocytes (immune reconstitution). Immune reconstitution of M. paratuberculosis-infected beige/ scid mice significantly reduced the severity of clinical disease and pathologic lesions, and numbers of bacteria in the liver. However, intestinal electrophysiologic parameters studied in vitro indicated that intestinal tissues from reconstituted beige/scid mice had reduced short-circuit current responses (due to reduced ion secretion) following electrical, glucose, and forskolin stimulation. These abnormal responses suggested that neural or epithelial cells in the intestine were damaged. We conclude that successful immune reconstitution of beige/scid mice enhance their resistance to M. paratuberculosis infection, but may cause pathophysiologic changes associated with intestinal inflammation.

Adoptive Transfer↗
PubMed2002

[Biological characterization of mouse erythroblastic leukemia cells in haploiden tical mice].

Using transplantable erythroblastic leukemia cells of EL9611(H-2d), the cells were inoculated to CB6F(1)(H-2d/b) generation of BALB/c x C57BL/6 mouse, the biological characterization of erythroblastic leukemia in haploidentical mouse was studied, that provides an experimental model for the study of graft-versus leukemia (GVL) with bone marrow or stem cell transplantation. When 10(3) - 10(8) of the spleen cells of EL9611(H-2d) had been intravenously inoculated to CB6F(1) mouse, the erythroblastic leukemia cells were transplanted successively and the F(1) generation of erythroblastic leukemia model in mice was established with 100% incidence of erythroblastic leukemia. There was a linear relationship between the survival time and the number of leukemic cell. The survival time of the mice was (9.6 +/- 0.8) days when 10(6) cells were inoculated. If the CB6F(1) mouse was transplanted successively for four generations, the incidence was 100%. The main targets for the leukemic EL9611(H-2d) cells were liver, spleen and marrow. The reaction of the erythroblastic leukemia cells for hemoglobin staining was positive, while the peroxidase reaction was negative. These cells were sensitive to some chemotherapeutic drugs, such as cytosine arabinoside and cyclophosphamide. This study presents the convenience for the studies on the GVL with haplo-allogeneic transplantation, in the F(1) generation of erythroblastic leukemia model of the commonly-used CD57BL/6 x BALB/c mouse.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Complete elucidation of a minimal class I MHC natural killer cell receptor haplotype.

The BALB/c inbred mouse is widely used in models of infectious disease, transplantation, and cancer. The differences in the immune responses of BALB/c compared to C57BL/6 mice are especially valuable for the identification of immune regulation genes. One striking immune variance between these mice is in the function of natural killer (NK) cells, and there is strong evidence implicating differential expression of Ly49 genes. In this study, the complete BALB/c Ly49 gene cluster has been sequenced and found to contain six functional genes and two pseudogenes. Compared to C57BL/6 mice, there is a 200 kb region absent in the BALB/c cluster including a complete lack of Ly49h-related genes, which explains the increased susceptibility of BALB/c to cytomegalovirus infection. In addition, there is no BALB/c Ly49d allele, explaining the inability of BALB/c NK cells to kill certain tumor cells. The Ly49 region has now been sequenced in three different inbred mouse strains, and comparisons indicate that the evolution of each haplotype is not straightforward and has involved large-scale deletions/insertions, gene recombination, and unequal crossing over between divergent haplotypes. This study confirms that relatively small murine class I MHC receptor haplotypes exist, analogous to observations made of human killer cell Ig-like receptor gene haplotypes.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Cytokine adjuvancy of BVDV DNA vaccine enhances both humoral and cellular immune responses in mice.

The effect of cytokine adjuvancy on a bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) DNA vaccine expressing the major glycoprotein E2 was investigated in mice. Murine interleukin-2 (IL-2) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) were chosen for their potential ability to enhance the humoral and cellular immune responses involved in protection against BVDV. Both cytokines, co-administered as separate plasmid constructs, had a marked effect on ELISA and neutralising antibody titres, improving the spectrum of neutralisation induced by the E2 DNA vaccine, as demonstrated in heterologous neutralisation assays. The predominance of IgG2a isotypes, in sera from all DNA injected groups, indicated a Th1 biased immune response. Antigen specific proliferation of murine splenocytes from immunised mice was enhanced by cytokine co-administration, with the highest stimulation indexes observed in the group co-injected with the GM-CSF construct. These results obtained in the mouse (Balb/c; H2-kd) animal model demonstrate the value of the two cytokines as adjuvants for the E2 DNA vaccine. The need for an adjuvant in this system was emphasised by the MHC restriction observed when C57BL/6 mice (H2-kb) were immunised with the E2 DNA construct. Antibody levels were dramatically lower in this mouse strain.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

A method for performing full-thickness, orthotopic, penetrating keratoplasty in the mouse.

In an attempt to overcome the lack of well characterized, inbred, and congenic strains, as well as a paucity of immunological reagents, in rabbit and rat models, we have developed a procedure for performing full-thickness, penetrating keratoplasty in the mouse. One hundred percent of isografts (BALB/c onto BALB/c) were successful, while 83.3% of allografts (C3H onto BALB/c) failed. The use of a mouse model to study corneal graft failure will allow a critical evaluation of the role of a variety of immunological mediators in causing graft failure.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Induction of specific human primary immune responses to a Semliki Forest virus-based tumor vaccine in a Trimera mouse model.

Recombinant Semliki Forest virus (rSFV) enables high-level, transient expression of heterologous proteins in vivo, and is believed to be a superior vector for genetic vaccination, compared with the conventional DNA plasmid. Nonetheless, the efficacy of rSFV-based vaccine in eliciting human immune responses has not been tested. We used a Trimera mouse model, consisting of lethally irradiated BALB/c host reconstituted with nonobese diabetes/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) bone marrow plus human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), to characterize the in vivo immune responses against rSFV-encoded human melanoma antigen MAGE-3. MAGE-3-specific antibody and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity were detected by ELISA and 51Cr-release assay, respectively, and the responses were compared with those induced by a plasmid DNA vaccine encoding the same antigen. The results showed that rSFV vaccine could elicit human MAGE-3-specific antibody and CTL response in the Trimera mice, and the antitumor responses were more potent than those by plasmid DNA vaccination. This is the first report to evaluate human immune responses to an rSFV-based tumor vaccine in the Trimera mouse model. Our data suggest that rSFV vector is better than DNA plasmid in inducing protective immunity, and the Trimera model may serve as a general tool to evaluate the efficacy of tumor vaccines in eliciting human primary immune response in vivo.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Immunotherapy against murine experimental visceral leishmaniasis with the FML-vaccine.

The fucose mannose ligand (Leishmania donovani FML)-saponin vaccine has earlier shown its immunoprophylactic potential against visceral leishmaniasis in the CB hamster (87.7% of parasite load reduction), Balb/c (84.4%) and Swiss albino mouse (85-93%) models. In this investigation its specific immunotherapeutic efficacy against L. donovani infection in Balb/c mice was studied. The effects of vaccine treatment on the humoral response, delayed type of hypersensitivity to promastigote lysate (DTH), cytokine levels in sera and reduction of the liver parasitic load of L. donovani infected mice, were examined. The types and subtypes of anti-FML antibodies increased significantly in the vaccinees over the saline and saponin controls. As expected for a saponin vaccine, the highest ratios were found in relation to IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b (4.4, 5 and 2.5, respectively). The DTH response and the in vitro ganglion cell proliferative response against FML antigen were also significantly higher than controls (P<0.005). Concomitantly, an impressive and specific decrease of liver parasitic burden was detected only in vaccine-treated animals (94.7%). Our results indicate that the therapeutic FML-vaccine has a potent effect on modulation of the murine infection leading to the reduction of parasitic load and signs of disease, being a new potential tool in the therapy and control of visceral leishmaniasis.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

FTY720, a new immunosuppressant, as rescue therapy in mouse cardiac transplantation.

AIM: FTY720 is a new synthetic immunosuppressive agent which has a unique mechanism of action and induces long-term graft acceptance in rat and dog allotransplantation as prophylactic administration. The present study investigated whether FTY720 was able to rescue ongoing acute rejection of solid organ transplants in a mouse heterotopic cardiac transplantation model. METHODS: BALB/c hearts were heterotopically grafted in C57BL/6 mice. FTY720, at the doses of 0.5, 1, and 5 mg.kg-1.d-1 or vehicle was administered to recipients once daily by oral gavage from d 3 to d 7 after transplantation. Histological changes of grafts, and the lymphocyte number in the peripheral blood and the peripheral lymph nodes were determined on d 5 after transplantation. RESULTS: FTY720 prolonged the median graft survival time dose-dependently and significantly. Histological evaluation revealed less lymphocytic infiltration in cardiac allografts treated with FTY720. Moreover, FTY720 remarkably lowered the number of peripheral blood lymphocytes but significantly increased the lymphocyte number in the mesenteric lymph nodes and the peripheral lymph nodes. CONCLUSION: FTY720 used orally as rescue therapy significantly extended allograft survival in mouse heterotopic cardiac transplantation.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Impact of cethromycin (ABT-773) therapy on microbiological, histologic, immunologic, and respiratory indices in a murine model of Mycoplasma pneumoniae lower respiratory infection.

Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a major etiologic agent of acute lower respiratory infections. We evaluated the antimicrobial and immunologic effects of cethromycin (ABT-773), a ketolide antibiotic, for the treatment of M. pneumoniae pneumonia in a mouse model. Eight-week-old BALB/c mice were inoculated intranasally once with 10(6) CFU of M. pneumoniae on day 0. Treatment was started 24 h after inoculation. Groups of mice were treated subcutaneously with cethromycin at 25 mg/kg of body weight or with placebo daily until sacrifice. Five to ten mice per group were evaluated at days 1, 4, 7, and 10 after inoculation. Outcome variables included bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) for M. pneumoniae quantitative culture and cytokine and chemokine concentration determinations by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-alpha], gamma interferon [IFN-gamma], interleukin-1beta [IL-1beta], IL-2, IL-4, IL-12, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 [MCP-1], and macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha [MIP-1alpha]), histopathologic score of the lungs (HPS), and pulmonary function tests (PFT) using whole-body, unrestrained plethysmography at the baseline and post-methacholine exposure as indicators of airway obstruction (AO) and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), respectively. The cethromycin-treated mice had a greater reduction in M. pneumoniae culture titers than placebo-treated mice, reaching statistical significance on days 7 and 10 (P < 0.05). HPS was significantly reduced in cethromycin-treated mice compared with placebo-treated mice on days 4, 7, and 10 (P < 0.05). Cytokine concentrations in BAL samples were reduced in mice that received cethromycin, and the differences were statistically significant for 7 of the 10 cytokines measured (TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, IL-1beta, IL-8, IL-12, MCP-1, and MIP-1alpha) on day 4 (P < 0.05). PFT values were improved in the cethromycin-treated mice, with AO and AHR significantly reduced on day 4 (P < 0.05). In this mouse model, treatment with cethromycin significantly reduced M. pneumoniae culture titers in BAL samples, cytokine and chemokine concentrations in BAL samples, histologic inflammation in the lungs, and disease severity as defined by AO and AHR.

Airway Obstruction↗
PubMed2006

Vaccination with leukemia cells expressing cell-surface-associated GM-CSF blocks leukemia induction in immunocompetent mice.

The fundamental basis for immunotherapy of leukemia is that leukemic cells express specific antigens that are not expressed by normal hematopoietic cells. However, the host immune system appears to be tolerant to leukemia cells. To overcome this tolerance, we vaccinated immunocompetent mice with murine leukemia cells (WEHI-3B and BCR-ABL+ 32D cells) transduced with a specifically constructed transmembrane form of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (tmGM-CSF). The transduced cells expressed tmGM-CSF on the cell-surface. To determine whether tmGM-CSF-expressing WEHI-3B leukemia cells would prevent leukemia formation as a vaccine, immunocompetent mice (BALB/c and C3H/HEJ) were immunized with lethally irradiated murine leukemia cells expressing cell-surface tmGM-CSF before challenging mice with murine leukemia cells. Two immunocompetent mouse models were investigated, either WEHI-3B cells in BALB/c mice or BCR-ABL+ 32D cells in C3H/HEJ mouse. The results showed that 100% of WEHI-3B/tmGM-CSF-vaccinated BALB/c mice and about 65% of 32D+ BCR-ABL/tmGM-CSF-vaccinated C3H/HEJ mice were protected from leukemia after leukemia cell challenge, whereas all non-vaccinated mice succumbed to leukemia. Spleen and marrow cell suspensions from vaccinated mice challenged with WEHI-3B cells lacked detectable GFP+ WEHI-3B cells at 82 days post-challenge. A significant delay of death was observed in C3H/HEJ mice challenged with the very aggressive DA-1 cell line expressing BCR-ABL. Vaccination of mice with WEHI-3B/CD40L cells protected 80% of the mice from the WEHI-3B challenge. Notably, 60% of the WEHI-3B/BALB/c mice were also protected from leukemia when WEHI-3B/tmGM-CSF vaccination was carried out after the leukemia challenge. In order to determine whether cellular immunity is involved in this vaccine-mediated protection, either CD4+ or CD8+ T cells were depleted from mice after the WEHI-3B/tmGM-CSF vaccination. The results indicate that CD8+ T-cells mediated the protective immune response provided by the irradiated tmGM-CSF-expressing WEHI-3B cells. In addition, vaccination of nude mice did not provide protection from WEHI-3B leukemia induction. Importantly, 80% of non-vaccinated mice were also protected from a WEHI-3B cell challenge after receiving spleen cells from vaccinated mice 1 day before challenge with leukemia cells. These results indicate that overexpression of tmGM-CSF on the leukemia cell-surface can enhance the recognition of leukemic cells by CD8+ T cells, and can either prevent or significantly delay leukemia induction. These findings suggest that injection of irradiated leukemia cells expressing cell-surface-bound GM-CSF has the potential as an immunological approach to treat leukemia.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

[The animal research of recombinant adenovirus controlled by human telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter in the treatment of human prostate cancer].

OBJECTIVE: To approach the treatment efficiency of replication defective adenovirus carrying HSV-tk gene under control of the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) promoter in a mouse xenografts model of prostate cancer. METHODS: It was erected that the model of human prostate cancer in BALB/C nude mouse followed by locally injecting Ad-hTERT-HSV-tk and peritoneal injection of GCV. The anti-tumor efficacy was evaluated by index of tumor volume, tumor weight, relative tumor curative, and tumor growth curve. Afterwards, the TUNEL and transmission electron microscope to overview apoptosis of tumor cells were used. Finally, immunohistochemistry for detecting PCNA of tumor cells were applied. RESULTS: Compared with the control group, all viruses treatment groups demonstrated tumor growth inhibition. Among 3 treatment groups, antitumoral effect of Ad-hTERT-HSV-tk/GCV was much stronger than other two groups (P < 0.05). Obvious necrosis and apoptosis was observed by TUNEL, and PCNA was detected by immunohistochemistry in tumor tissues in all viruses treatment group. CONCLUSIONS: Ad-hTERT-HSV-tk/GCV system is highly efficacious to inhabit the growth of human prostate cancer.

Adenoviridae↗
PubMed2005

[Effects of acidic oligose on differentially expressed genes in the mice model of Alzheimer's disease by microarray].

AIM: To investigate the molecular mechanism of protective effect of acidic oligose 971 on Alzheimer's disease mouse model by using microarray. METHODS: Balb/c mice were randomly divided into control group, beta-AP(25-35) i.c.v. injected group and 971-treated group. The learning-memory ability of mice was tested by Morris water maze experiment. Total RNA of the cerebral cortex was extracted from the mice of each group. cDNA microarrays containing 1176 genes were used to investigate the gene expression pattern of each group. Expressions of 5 genes were randomly selected for further confirmation by RT-PCR. RESULTS: Icv injection of beta-AP(25-35) caused significant impairments in spatial and working memory performances of mice in Morris water maze and which were relieved by the treatment of 971. Up- and down- regulated genes were 19 and 12 in beta-AP(25-35)-injected group vs control group, respectively. Up- and down- regulated genes were 13 and 4, respectively, in 971-treated group vs beta-AP(25-35)-injected group. RT-PCR results indicated that 5 genes showed identical results to that of the microarray. CONCLUSION: The protective effect of 971 on learning and memory ability of beta-AP(25-35)-treated mouse may be related to the expression changes of genes involved in cell cycle, DNA repair, nerve growth, synaptic plasticity and immune response, etc.

Alzheimer Disease↗
PubMed2003

Nuclear genetic control of mitochondrial DNA segregation.

Mammalian mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a high copy-number, maternally inherited genome that codes for a small number of essential proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation. Mutations in mtDNA are responsible for a broad spectrum of clinical disorders. The segregation pattern of pathogenic mtDNA mutants is an important determinant of the nature and severity of mitochondrial disease, but it varies with the specific mutation, cell type and nuclear background and generally does not correlate well with mitochondrial dysfunction. To identify nuclear genes that modify the segregation behavior of mtDNA, we used a heteroplasmic mouse model derived from two inbred strains (BALB/c and NZB; ref. 12), in which we had previously demonstrated tissue-specific and age-dependent directional selection for different mtDNA genotypes in the same mouse. Here we show that this phenotype segregates in F2 mice from a genetic cross (BALB/c x CAST/Ei) and that it maps to at least three quantitative-trait loci (QTLs). Genome-wide scans showed linkage of the trait to loci on Chromosomes 2, 5 and 6, accounting for 16-35% of the variance in the trait, depending on the tissue and age of the mouse. This is the first genetic evidence for nuclear control of mammalian mtDNA segregation.

Animals↗