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[The elderly subject and social violence: the body as a factor in communication].

The social inferiority of an elderly person stems from his physical inferiority--actual or alleged but always possible. And yet this "inferior" body is paradoxically hypertrophic: at first it masks the person, then takes up its space until it negates it. Hence, an elderly person is not only a body but a lonely body. In his relations with other people, his body becomes a receiver, a receptacle and a source of communication. Social violence underlies relations with elderly people: such violence may be deceptive, widespread and continuous or, on the other hand, manifest, episodic and conspicuous. In the first case it may be a way of assigning subalternate roles to them in relation to the efficiency expected of them or a way of mythologizing their condition as one of pseudo-happiness. In the second case is generally relates to assaults, thefts, bag-snatching, etc. In any case, however, communication with them entails violence: their body perceives this and reacts to it. This is why their body's language is violent: their body cries out, it is stunned and it is acted upon (even--and unavoidably--in relations with a therapist).

Aged↗

Age-related declines in anaerobic muscular performance: weightlifting and powerlifting.

PURPOSE: One approach to studying the effects of aging on physiological functional capacity (PFC) in humans is to analyze the peak physical performance of trained athletes with increasing age. The primary aim of the present study was to determine weightlifting and powerlifting performance with increasing age in both men and women. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of top age-group weightlifting and powerlifting records compiled from the U.S. Weightlifting and U.S. Powerlifting Organizations. RESULTS: Regression analyses showed that in both men and women weightlifting and powerlifting performance declined curvilinearly and linearly, respectively. The rate and the overall magnitude of declines in performance with age were markedly greater (P < 0.05) in weightlifting than in powerlifting. The rates of age-related decline in muscular power were not different between upper body (bench press) and lower body (squat). Similarly, the age-related declines were not different between snatch and clean and jerk in weightlifting events. The magnitude of the declines with age was greater (P < 0.05) in women than in men in weightlifting; no such sex-related differences were observed in powerlifting performance. CONCLUSIONS: The findings in this cross-sectional study indicate that 1) peak anaerobic muscular power, as assessed by peak lifting performance, decreases progressively even from earlier ages than previously thought; 2) the overall magnitude of decline in peak muscular power appears to be greater in tasks requiring more complex and powerful movements; 3) the age-related rates of decline are greater in women than in men only in the events that require more complex and explosive power; and 4) upper- and lower-body muscular power demonstrate similar rate of decline with age.

Adult↗

Allometric modeling does not determine a dimensionless power function ratio for maximal muscular function.

In the exercise sciences, simple allometry (y = axb) is rapidly becoming the method of choice for scaling physiological and human performance data for differences in body size. The purpose of this study is to detail the specific regression diagnostics required to validate such models. The sum (T, in kg) of the "snatch" and "clean-and-jerk" lifts of the medalists from the 1995 Men's and Women's World Weightlifting Championships was modeled as a function of body mass (M, in kg). A log-linearized allometric model (ln T = ln a + b ln M) yielded a common mass exponent (b) of 0. 47 (95% confidence interval = 0.43-0.51, P < 0.01). However, size-related patterned deviations in the residuals were evident, indicating that the allometric model was poorly specified and that the mass exponent was not size independent. Model respecification revealed that second-order polynomials provided the best fit, supporting previous modeling of weightlifting data (R. G. Sinclair. Can. J. Appl. Sport Sci. 10: 94-98, 1985). The model parameters (means +/- SE) were T = (21.48 +/- 16.55) + (6.119 +/- 0.359)M - (0. 022 +/- 0.002)M2 (R2 = 0.97) for men and T = (-20.73 +/- 24.14) + (5. 662 +/- 0.722)M - (0.031 +/- 0.005)M2 (R2 = 0.92) for women. We conclude that allometric scaling should be applied only when all underlying model assumptions have been rigorously evaluated.

Adult↗

Age, body mass, and gender as predictors of masters olympic weightlifting performance.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine previously collected performance scores from the 2000 World Masters Weightlifting Championships to 1). determine the extent to which age and body mass are related to and predictive of indirect estimates of absolute and relative muscular power, and 2). assess possible gender differences in these associations. METHODS: Dependent variables were absolute load (ABS = heaviest snatch [kg] + heaviest clean and jerk [kg]) and relative load (REL = ABS [kg]/body mass [kg]), representing indirect estimates of absolute and relative muscular power, respectively. Predictor variables were age (yr) and body mass (kg). Linear regression and various diagnostic procedures were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: The linear model provided an adequate fit for the data because no departures from the usual assumptions of normally distributed variables and homoscedastic error variance were observed. All predictor variables were significantly (P < 0.05) predictive of the dependent variables, but the magnitude of associations (e.g., R(ABS|BM) = 0.18 among females vs R(ABS|BM) = 0.57 among males) and extent of predictive ability (e.g., R(adj)2 for regression of ABS on age and body mass was 0.18-0.58 among females vs 0.74-0.83 among males) were significantly (P < 0.05) higher among males versus females. CONCLUSION: The extent to which age and body mass explain differences in muscular power differs between female and male masters weightlifters, but the rate of decline (%.yr-1) in power with advancing age is similar and is in agreement with previous reports for world record holders, other masters athletes, and healthy, untrained individuals, suggesting the importance of the aging process itself over physical activity history.

Adult↗

Longitudinal study of the effect of high intensity weight training on aerobic capacity.

To investigate the effect of a long-term weight lifting programme characterized by high intensity, low repetition and long rest period between sets on maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) and to determine the advantage of this programme combined with jogging, 26 male untrained students were involved in weight training for a period of 3 years. The VO2max and body composition of the subjects were examined at beginning, 1 year, 2 years (T2), and 3 years after (T3) training. Of the group, 19 subjects performed the weight lifting programme 5 days each week for 3 years (W-group), 4 subjects performed the same weight lifting programme for 3 years with an additional running programme consisting of 2 miles of jogging once a week during the 3rd year (R1-group), and 3 subjects performed the weight lifting programme during the 1st year and the same combined jogging and weight lifting programme as the R1-group during the 2nd and 3rd years (R2-group). The average VO2max relative to their body mass of the W-group decreased significantly during the 1st year, followed by an insignificant decrease in the 2nd year and a levelling off in the 3rd year. The average VO2max of the W-group at T2 and T3 was 44.2 and 44.1 ml.kg-1.min-1, respectively. The tendency of VO2max changes in the R1- and R2-groups was similar to the W-group until they started the jogging programme, after which they recovered significantly to the initial level within a year of including that programme, and they then levelled off during the next year. Lean body mass estimated from skinfold thicknesses had increased by about 8% after 3 years of weight lifting. The maximal muscle strength, defined by total olympic lifts (snatch, and clean and jerk), of these three groups increased significantly and there was no significant difference among the amounts of the increase in the three groups.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗

Comparative 3-dimensional kinematic analysis of the snatch technique in elite male and female greek weightlifters.

The purpose of the current research was the comparison of the snatch technique between elite male and female weightlifters. Two S-VHS cameras operating at 60 fields per second were used to record the snatch lifts of 6 male and 6 female Greek weightlifters under competitive conditions. The spatial coordinates of selected points on the body and the barbell were calculated using the direct linear transformation procedure, and the raw data were digitally filtered with a cutoff frequency of 4 Hz. Analyses of variance for dependent and independent samples were used to compare the selected variables in men with the corresponding variables in women. The results revealed that women flexed their knees significantly less and slower than men did during the transition phase (p < 0.05). Women also dropped under the barbell during the turnover and catch phases significantly less and slower than men did (p < 0.05). Moreover, the external mechanical work for the vertical displacement of the barbell in men was significantly greater in the first pull than in the second pull (p < 0.05). In contrast, women showed similar work outputs in the 2 phases. These differences between the 2 sexes might be because of the lower skill level of women in comparison with men, which is partly because of the recent participation of women in weightlifting.

Adolescent↗

Standardization and validation of the body weight adjustment regression equations in Olympic weightlifting.

The problems in comparing the performances of Olympic weightlifters arise from the fact that the relationship between body weight and weightlifting results is not linear. In the present study, this relationship was examined by using a nonparametric curve fitting technique of robust locally weighted regression (LOWESS) on relatively large data sets of the weightlifting results made in top international competitions. Power function formulas were derived from the fitted LOWESS values to represent the relationship between the 2 variables in a way that directly compares the snatch, clean-and-jerk, and total weightlifting results of a given athlete with those of the world-class weightlifters (golden standards). A residual analysis of several other parametric models derived from the initial results showed that they all experience inconsistencies, yielding either underestimation or overestimation of certain body weights. In addition, the existing handicapping formulas commonly used in normalizing the performances of Olympic weightlifters did not yield satisfactory results when applied to the present data. It was concluded that the devised formulas may provide objective means for the evaluation of the performances of male weightlifters, regardless of their body weights, ages, or performance levels.

Body Weight↗

Salivary cortisol and testosterone variations during an official and a simulated weight-lifting competition.

This study was undertaken to compare salivary levels of cortisol (C), testosterone (T) and T/C ratio during an official and a simulated weight-lifting competition. Thirteen top-level weight-lifters (French team) including 7 national level athletes (NG) and 6 international level athletes (IG) entered the study. The performance levels corrected with the IWF index (an index which relates the performance to body weight) obtained during the competition were higher than those obtained during the simulation and were higher in IG than in NG. Salivary samples were collected for each session after weighing, snatch and clean-and-jerk. The mean T-levels of these athletes were the same as those obtained in the laboratory on sedentary adults; they did not vary throughout the competition, nor between the competition and the simulation. Conversely the C-levels were statistically higher in the competition than in the simulation (p < 0.05). These C-levels are correlated with the performance levels corrected with the IWF index obtained during the competition (r = 0.67; p < 0.05; n = 13). Moreover, C-levels noted at the time of the competition were higher in the international athletes than in the national ones. Therefore, we concluded that the cortisol level may be considered as a performance factor in weight-lifting.

Adult↗

Snatch lift kinematics and bar energetics in male adolescent and adult weightlifters.

AIM: The aim of the present study was compare linear kinematics and energy changes of the barbell, along with the angular kinematics of the leg movement during the snatch technique, between male adolescent and adult weightlifters. METHODS: Two S-VHS cameras operating at 60 fields per second recorded the heaviest lifts of 14 male adolescent and 9 adult top-level weightlifters under competitive conditions. The spatial co-ordinates of selected points on the body and the barbell were calculated using the direct linear transformation procedure. A low pass digital filter with 4 Hz cut-off frequency was used for the smoothing of raw co-ordinate data. The ''t''-test for independent samples was used for the statistical treatment of data. RESULTS: The results revealed that there were no significant differences between the adolescent and the adult weightlifters in the majority of the kinematic variables. However, adolescent weightlifters extended their knees significantly slower (t21 = 4.211, p < 0.05) during the 1st pull and their ankles during the 2nd pull (t21 = 2.440, p < 0.05) than the adult weightlifters did. Moreover, the average relative power output was significantly greater for the adult weightlifters during both the 1st (t21 = 2.303, p < 0.05) and the snd pull (t21 = 2.611, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: These results indicate that the adolescent weightlifters were characterised from a high level of snatch technique and differentiated from the adults predominantly at the less powerful execution of the movement.

Adolescent↗

Power production by Olympic weightlifters.

A new procedure was developed for calculating power production during Olympic lifting movements and comparisons were made with a method previously used. The power output of seven superior lifters was determined during selected phases of the snatch, clean, and jerk, from films taken at the 1975 U.S. National Championships. The values obtained depended on the following variables: vertical change in the bar's mechanical energy from the beginning of a force exertion phase until maximum vertical bar velocity was achieved; work done by the athlete in producing horizontal bar movement; and work done in raising the body's center of gravity. Results showed the expected increase in power with increased bodyweight for a given movement. Values for the jerk drive ranged from 2140 watts in the 56 kg class to 4786 watts for a 110 kg lifter. Heavier lifters exceeded published maximal estimates for human power output during brief exertions. More significant was the high degree of consistency in the rate of work done by any given lifter in movements which were very similar with respect to joint action, but competitively had very different objectives. The procedure should prove useful in detecting problems in lifting movements that result in power outputs which are low relative to those measured for biomechanically equivalent exertions.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗

Relationship of maximum strength to weightlifting performance.

PURPOSE: The primary objective was to assess the relationship of maximum strength to weightlifting ability using established scaling methods. The secondary objective was to compare men and women weightlifters on strength and weightlifting ability. METHODS: Two correlational observations were carried out using Pearson's r. In the first observation (N = 65) the relationship of dynamic maximum strength (one-repetition maximum (1RM) squat) was compared with weightlifting ability; in the second observation (N = 16), isometric maximum strength (midthigh pull) was studied. Scaling methods for equating maximum strength and weightlifting results were used (load x (Ht), load x kg, load x lbm(-1), allometric, and Sinclair formula) to assess the association between measures of maximum strength and weightlifting performance. RESULTS: Using scaled values; correlations between maximum strength and weightlifting results were generally strong in both observations (e.g., using allometric scaling for the 1RM squat vs the 1RM snatch: r = 0.84, N = 65). Men were stronger than women (e.g., 1RM squat, N = 65: men = 188.1 +/- 48.6 kg; women = 126.7 +/- 28.3 kg); differences generally held when scaling was applied (e.g., 1RM squat scaled with the Sinclair formula: men = 224.7 +/- 36.5 kg; women = 144.2 +/- 25.4 kg). CONCLUSIONS: When collectively considering scaling methods, maximum strength is strongly related to weightlifting performance independent of body mass and height differences. Furthermore, men are stronger than women even when body mass and height are obviated by scaling methods.

Adolescent↗

Kinematical analysis of the snatch in elite male junior weightlifters of different weight categories.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the differences in the technical pattern of the snatch in elite junior weightlifters of different weight categories. The sample was a group of 33 men weightlifters from different weight categories. The comparative study included 2 groups, taking into account weight categories. Group A included 17 weightlifters from the lightest categories, 56 and 62 kg; group B included 16 weightlifters from the heaviest categories, 85 and 105 kg. Three-dimensional photogrammetry technique was utilized. Regarding group differences, we can conclude that lifters belonging to heavier categories are more efficient, as they manage to have longer barbell propulsion trajectories, which allows them to exert actions on the barbell for a longer period, especially in the initial lifting phase. They attain greater barbell vertical velocity (p = 0.029), a longer vertical bar trajectory normalized on first pull (p = 0.011), and a greater, although limited, bar height loss on the catch (p = 0.008). Besides, intergroup differences evidence that heavier category lifters observe a different temporal organization of the movement based on a longer first pull (p = 0.000), a shorter transition (p = 0.030), and a longer turnover (p = 0.049). No significant differences were found in the analyzed angular parameters during the first and second pull. We believe the intergroup differences found not to be determining enough to consider a technical model adapted to the characteristics of each body weight category. This confirms that a successful lift is multifactor based and individual dependent. Given its transcendence, this evidence should be taken into account in the technical training of young lifters.

Adolescent↗

Differences in muscle cross-sectional area and strength between elite senior and college Olympic weight lifters.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to investigate the profiles of muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and strength capability in relation to lifting ability in Olympic weight lifters. METHODS: The subjects were 8 elite senior lifters (ESL, age=25.2+/-1.3 years, height=1.64+/-0.03 m, mass=68.6+/-4.2 kg, mean+/-SEM) and 9 college lifters (CL, 20.8+/-0.3 years, 1.67+/-0.03 m, 70.53.4 kg) whose predetermined weight classes were within the same range. The CSAs of elbow or knee extensor and elbow or knee flexor muscles were measured using a B-mode ultrasound apparatus. Concentric and eccentric maximal voluntary forces were determined with an isokinetic dynamometer at a constant velocity of 1.05 rad/sec. RESULTS: The best score of the total mass lifted in the snatch and the clean and jerk lifts was significantly higher in ESL than in CL even in terms of per unit of fat-free mass. There were no significant differences between the two groups in fat-free mass, muscle CSA and force values with the exception that ESL compared to CL showed significantly greater force in concentric knee flexion. However, the ratios of force to muscle CSA (F/CSAs) in concentric and eccentric elbow extensions, eccentric knee extension and concentric knee flexion were significantly higher in ESL than in CL. CONCLUSIONS: The present results indicated that the magnitude of muscular development in limbs was similar in elite senior and college lifters whose predetermined weight classes were within the same range. As compared to college lifters, however, elite senior lifters had a higher F/CSA in specific muscle action modes, which might relate to the optimal execution of the Olympic lifts.

Anthropometry↗

Experimental reproduction of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) in pigs in Sweden and Denmark with a Swedish isolate of porcine circovirus type 2.

An experimental model using 3-day-old snatch-farrowed colostrum-deprived piglets co-infected with porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and porcine parvovirus (PPV) is at present one of the best methods to study factors affecting development of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). A Swedish isolate of PCV2 (S-PCV2) retrieved in 1993 from a healthy pig has been used in this model to reproduce PMWS in pigs from Northern Ireland. This virus has been present in the Swedish pig population for at least a decade without causing any known PMWS disease problems, despite its potential pathogenicity. The reasons for this are unknown, but could be related to genetics, absence of triggers for PCV2 upregulation (infectious agent and/or management forms) within Swedish pig husbandry. In order to confirm the pathogenicity of S-PCV2, Swedish and Danish pigs were experimentally infected with this isolate according to the established model. Swedish pigs were also infected with a reference isolate of PCV2 (PCV2-1010) to compare the severity of disease caused by the two isolates in Swedish pigs. Both Danish and Swedish pigs developed PMWS after the experimental infection with S-PCV2. Antibodies to PCV2 developed later and reached lower levels in serum from pigs infected with S-PCV2 than in pigs inoculated with PCV2-1010. In general, pigs infected with S-PCV2 showed more severe clinical signs of disease than pigs infected with PCV2-1010, but pigs from all PCV2-inoculated groups displayed gross and histological lesions consistent with PMWS. All pigs inoculated with PPV, alone or in combination with PCV2, displayed interleukin-10 responses in serum while only pigs infected with PPV in combination with PCV2 showed interferon-alpha in serum on repeated occasions. Thus, the pathogenicity of S-PCV2 was confirmed and a role for cytokines in the etiology of PMWS was indicated.

Animals↗