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PubMed1979

The relation between respiratory illness in primary schoolchildren and the use of gas for cooking--II. Factors affecting nitrogen dioxide levels in the home.

The study was designed to determine whether there was an association between indoor levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and respiratory illness and lung function in schoolchildren. NO2 was measured for one week in the winter outside and inside the homes of children aged 6-7 years living and attending primary schools in a defined 4 square km area in Middlesbrough, Cleveland, UK. Outdoor levels of NO2 measured at 75 points within the area ranged from 14-24 ppb weekly average. Measurements were also made in 428 kitchens with gas cookers, range 5-317 ppb, mean 112.2 ppb, and in 87 kitchens with electric cookers, range 6-188 ppb, mean 18.0 ppb. In a random subsample of homes the range of NO2 levels in 107 children's bedrooms in homes where gas was used for cooking was 4-169 ppb, mean 30.5 ppb, in 18 bedrooms in electric cooking homes the range was 3-37 ppb, mean 13.9 ppb. NO2 levels in the gas cooking kitchens were positively related to the presence of pilot lights, use of gas fires for main heating, number of regular smokers, and the number of people in the home. Information from 29 homes with the highest kitchen NO2 levels paired with 29 low NO2 gas cooking homes showed that the daily number of meals eaten and the frequency with which the cooker was used for heating and drying clothes were significantly greater in the high NO2 homes.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMed1978

Survival of a Salmonella typhimurium experimental contaminant during cooking of beef roasts.

Twenty-one raw boneless beef roasts were experimentally injected with 2 X 10(7) cells of a nalidixic acid-resistant strain of Salmonella typhimurium per roast. Contaminated roasts were cooked to center internal temperatures of 137.0 to 147.5 degrees F (58.3 to 64.1 degrees C) in a gas-fired pilot plant food-processing oven. Viable experimental contaminants were recovered from two core samples of the 21 roasts (one cooked to 137.0 degrees F [58.3 degrees C] and one cooked to 141.5 degrees F [ca 60.8 degrees C]). All of 17 cooking net samples taken from the contaminant injection side of roasts were salmonella positive, whereas 7 of 9 net samples from the side opposite injection were positive and all of 11 net samples from the bottom of roasts were positive. The implications of these results are discussed in relation to salmonella contamination of precooked beef roasts.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Digestion of complex carbohydrates and large bowel fermentation in rats fed on raw and cooked peas (Pisum sativum).

Rats were fed on four semi-purified diets in which raw or cooked peas (Pisum sativum var. Sentinel) provided 250 or 500 g/kg diet. Pressure-cooking of peas followed by rapid freezing and freeze-drying increased the proportion of starch resistant to alpha-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) without previous treatment with dimethyl sulphoxide. There were only minor effects of cooking on the digestibilities of non-starch polysaccharides and their constituent sugars. With the higher dietary pea concentration there were marked increases in the flow of organic matter to, and fermentation in, the large bowel. These increases were associated with significant increases in colonic tissue and contents weights, and in colonic transit time. Both cooking and dietary pea inclusion rate altered the pattern of volatile fatty acids in caecal contents and in portal blood.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

A study on genotoxicity of cooking fumes from rapeseed oil.

The present article reports the genotoxic potential of rapeseed oil cooking fume investigated by a battery of short-term tests (Ames test, SCE/V79 in vitro and mice micronucleus in vivo test). The results showed that the cooking fume contained mutagenic activity. In the presence of S9 mix, an increase in the number of the Salmonella TA98 was observed at doses ranging from 1.0 to 5.0 mg/plate, and the SCE frequencies of V79 cell were markedly raised at doses ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 mg.ml-1. The positive result was also obtained in mice micronucleus assay, the mice had inhaled the cooking fume a week earlier. The frequency of mice bone marrow MN-PCE was increased and it showed a remarkable time-dose-response relationship during the 4 weeks exposure. The results suggested that this cooking fume exposure may be a risk factor of lung cancer in Chinese women.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

Aflatoxin occurrence on raw and cooked york soybeans inoculated with three aspergillus isolates.

Raw and cooked soybean media were inoculated in separate experiments with Aspergillus flavus NRRL 3251, A. flavus ATCC 15548, and A. parasiticus NRRL 2999 isolates. The toatl quantity of aflatoxins produced and the percentage distribution of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 varied with the state of the medium (raw or cooked) and with the fungal isolate used. Cooked soybean medium supported higher aflatoxin productions by A. flavus NRRL 3251 and A. parasiticus NRRL 2999 than did raw medium. Larger quantities of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 were produced by A. flavus ATCC 15548 on raw soybean medium than were produced by any of the isolates on cooked medium. Application of these data is discussed briefly in relation to possible use of soybean media as a source of aflatoxin production.

Aflatoxins↗

PubMed1992

Genotoxicity of heated cooking oil vapors.

Epidemiological studies of lung cancer in Chinese women indicated that factors other than cigarette smoking are related to lung cancer risk. A case-control study suggested that indoor air pollution, particularly from cooking oil emissions, may be involved. Condensates of volatile emissions from rapeseed and soybean cooking oils were prepared and found to be genotoxic in short-term tests including the Salmonella mutation assay, SV50 forward-mutation assay, and sister-chromatid exchange assay, as well as the micronucleus assay in mouse bone marrow. In contrast, condensates from rapeseed oil with butylated hydroxyanisole or hydrogenated rapeseed oil were not mutagenic, implicating oxidation products as the cause for mutagenicity. Peanut oil and lard condensates were not mutagenic in any assay. The association of exposure to Chinese rapeseed cooking-oil emissions and lung-cancer risk may be related to the mutagenic component of these condensates.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗

PubMed1977

Association between gas cooking and respiratory disease in children.

A four-year longitudinal study of the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and disease in schoolchildren and related environmental and socio-economic factors is in progress. We report results for the first year of this study (1973). A total of 5758 children aged 6 to 11 years from 28 randomly selected areas of England and Scotland were examined. In an analysis of the effects on health of possible indoor pollutants, boys and girls from homes in which gas was used for cooking were found to have more cough, "colds going to the chest", and bronchitis than children from homes where electricity was used. The girls also had more wheeze if their families used gas for cooking. This "cooking effect" appeared to be independent of the effects of age, social class, latitude, population density, family size, overcrowding, outdoor levels of smoke and sulphur dioxide and types of fuel used for heating. It was concluded that elevated levels of oxides of nitrogen arising from the combustion of gas might be the cause of the increased respiratory illness.

Air Pollution↗

PubMed1979

Digestibility of raw and cooked starches from legume seeds using the laboratory rat.

The in vivo digestibility and growth responses to diets containing raw and cooked legume starches were determined using male Wistar rats. These starches were obtained from seven legumes including smooth- and wrinkled-seeded field peas, navy beans, kidney beans, garbanzo beans, mung beans and lentils. Wheat and potato starch diets were fed for comparative purposes. With the exception of potato and the field pea starches, rats fed uncooked starch diets had higher weight gains than those fed cooked starch diets. The starches from wheat and all legumes, excluding the high-amylose wrinkled pea, were nearly 100% digestible but the legume starches reduced the digestibility of casein protein by 3 to 4%. Raw potato starch was shown to be only 57% digestible. The starches from potato and wrinkled pea reduced the digestibility of casein protein to 87% and gave high cecum weights. These characteristics were not altered by cooking the starch of wrinkled pea. The starches of smooth-seeded peas, lentils and all beans were highly digestible, showed no adverse effects on growth and were comparable to wheat starch in this evaluation.

Animals↗

PubMed1978

Formation of mutagens in beef and beef extract during cooking.

Mutagens, distinguishable from benzo[a]pyrene and from mutagenic amino acid and protein pyrolysis products, are formed when ground beef is cooked in a home hamburger cooking appliance or when beef stock is concentrated, by boiling, to a paste known commercially as beef extract. "Well-done" hamburgers contain about 0.14 part per million of the mutagens, and beef bouillon cubes which contain beef extract about 0.1 part per million. Since such mutagens may be potentially carcionogenic and are formed during ordinary cooking procedures, their occurrence raises questions about possible risks to human health.

Animals↗

PubMed1979

Portion sizes, preparation and cooking yields, and plate waste in school meals.

Available portion sizes for a wide range of menu items were measured in seven junior schools and three senior schools in one local authority area. Serving waste was also measured and used as a criterion of acceptability. Portion sizes for entrees, desserts and potatoes were generally acceptable except for a few unpopular items. Custard was the most acceptable milky sauce. A small range of vegetables was acceptable in small quantities, but excess was rejected while others were almost totally rejected. Peeling, trimming and cooking yields for vegatables, trimming and cooking yields for meat, and plate waste were measured over one year in 180 schools in eight local authority areas. Results for vegetables compared favourably with previously published data except for new potatoes where the yield after machine peeling was lower. Cooking yields for pork, beef and lamb were slightly lower than previously published values. Trimming waste from meat for stewing was substantially greater than the 5 per cent visible fat which is the catering specification for ordering. The mean plate waste was 33 g per child meal (excluding bones).

Adolescent↗

PubMed1977

An improved cooked meat medium for the detection of Clostridium botulinum.

A new medium composed of cooked meat and fluid thioglycolate broth was tested with 20 proteolytic and 11 saccharolytic strains of Clostridium botulinum. All of the proteolytic strains produced a black ring at the surface of the broth, presumably due to hydrogen sulfide production, while the saccharolytic strains produced white opaque rings. Since the black ring is formed rapidly and is easily seen, the new medium may be useful for the rapid identification of proteolysis in unknown isolates. Growth and toxin production were better in the new medium than in the usual cooked meat medium or in cooked meat medium plus 0.5% glucose. These results suggest that the new medium will be useful in facilitating identification of C. botulinum.

Animals↗

PubMed1979

Changes in free nucleotides, nucleosides and bases during preparation of pre-cooked dehdyrated minced meats.

Changes in free nucleotides, nucleosides and bases during preparation of pre-cooked dehydrated minced meats from goat and sheep are reported. Major changes took place during cooking stage only; the changes during dehydration were relatively minor. Addition of EDTA at 500 ppm level significantly reduced the rate of dephosphorylation during curing process. Concentration of free nucleotides and related compounds were very low in commercially prepared accelerated freeze dried meat chunks.

Animals↗

PubMed1978

A study of bacteria contaminating refrigerated cooked chicken; their spoilage potential and possible origin.

Cooked chicken was allowed to spoil in a normal kitchen refrigerator (variable temperature) and at a standard 4C. After 10 days' storage, bacteria were isolated from the chicken. It was found that the numbers of organisms at variable refrigeration temperature were tenfold higher than those at a uniform 4C. In an attempt to find the sources of contamination, swabs were made of different areas of the kitchen. Many of the bacteria isolated from the spoiled chicken, were also isolated from the kitchen environment. When pure cultures of organisms isolated from spoiled chicken were inoculated into sterile cooked chicken and held at 4C, the main spoilage organisms were found to be Pseudomonas putida and Aeromonas hydrophila, which were also isolated from the refrigerator where the chickens were stored in the kitchen. Aeromonas hydrophila was found in significantly high numbers on plates, cutting knives, chopping boards and cold water taps.

Aeromonas↗

PubMed1992

Stability of fusarin C: effects of the normal cooking procedure used in China and pH.

Fusarin C (FC) is a naturally occurring mutagen found on Fusarium moniliforme-contaminated corn. In Linxian, China, an area of exceptionally high incidence of esophageal cancer, the milled corn is made into small cakes called wotou, which are steamed. It has been suggested that FC may play a role in the etiology of esophageal cancer, but this has been questioned, in part, because of the thermal instability of FC. We therefore measured the effects of temperature on FC stability, mimicking the cooking process. FC was extracted from the wotou and quantitated by both reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and the Ames assay. After wotou were steamed for 30 minutes, 11% and 3% of the initial FC remained, as detected by the two assays, respectively. The milled corn, when moistened with water, had a pH of 6.1, which was lowered to 5.3 when it was inoculated with F. moniliforme and cultured for three weeks. Pickled vegetables are sometimes added to the wotou, which further reduces the pH. To determine the effects of pH on FC, it was heated in solution, with the pH varied between 4 and 8. Its stability was very pH dependent, decomposing more rapidly as the pH increased. Because ingested FC would also be subjected to the low pH of the stomach, it was treated for 30 minutes at 37 degrees C and pH values ranging from 1.0 to 7.0. FC was stable (less than 15% decomposition) under these conditions. If FC is a significant health threat, it could most easily be destroyed by cooking at slightly basic pH values.

China↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Lead contamination during domestic preparation and cooking of potatoes and leaching of bone-derived lead on roasting, marinading and boiling beef.

Lead concentrations were measured in boiled, mashed potatoes and in baked potatoes that had been prepared and cooked in domestic kitchens. Levels of lead in the boiled, mashed potatoes ranged from below the 1 microgram/kg limit of detection up to 18 micrograms/kg with a mean of 6 micrograms/kg (wet weight). In the large majority of cases the lead in the tap water was the predominant source of the metal. Higher amounts of lead (range 11 micrograms/kg to 56 micrograms/kg, mean 27 micrograms/kg) were present in baked potatoes and this was attributed to soil adhering to the potato skin. The extent of leaching of lead from bone during cooking has also been investigated. For beef stocks there was little evidence to suggest that significant migration of bone lead occurred. For beef casseroles, marinaded in red wine, some leaching did occur from beef joints containing elevated amounts of bone lead; however the levels were all below 350 micrograms/kg and, on average, less than double that found in casseroles prepared from normal joints where the bone lead levels were an order of magnitude less.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

The effect on intestinal transit and the feces of raw and cooked bran in different doses.

Ten healthy male subjects on a low fiber diet were given two doses of raw wheat bran (12 and 20 g/day) and two doses of cooked bran (13.2 and 22 g/day). Both doses of raw bran increased fecal dry weight but only the higher dose decreased transit time and increased stool volume. Individual stool size was increased only by raw bran 12g/day. Neither bran influenced fecal wet weight or stool frequency. This study suggests that the cereal manufacturing process alters wheat bran so that cooked bran has less effect on the intestine than does a comparable amount of raw bran.

Adult↗

PubMed1979

The relation between respiratory illness in primary schoolchildren and the use of gas for cooking--III. Nitrogen dioxide, respiratory illness and lung infection.

We examined the relation between lung function and respiratory illness in a population of 808 primary school children aged 6-7 years and the levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the kitchens and bedrooms in their homes. Complete data were collected on about 66% of the population. The children lived in a defined 4 square km area in Middlesbrough, Cleveland, UK. One week average outdoor levels of NO2 varied little over the area (14-24 ppb); The prevalence of respiratory illness was higher in children from gas than electric cooking homes (p approximately or equal to 0.1). Although prevalence was not related to kitchen NO2 levels (range 5-317 ppb) it increased with increasing levels of NO2 in the children's bedrooms in gas cooking homes (range 4-169 ppb, p approximately or equal to 0.1). Symptoms in siblings and parents were not related to kitchen NO2 levels. Lung function was not related to NO2 levels in the kitchen or bedroom. Because of the very low levels of NO2 at which an association with illness was observed and the inconsistency between our results in the UK and those from several studies in the US, it is possible that the NO2 levels were a proxy for some other factor more directly related to respiratory disease such as temperature or humidity.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Change in the sugar content in oaten products, buckwheat and rice groats during their heat processing by cooking].

The sugar content in the grits and in a gruel cooked with samples of oats and buckwheat subjected to hydrothermal treatment under different conditions and also in the oat flour, a product of baby and dietetic nutrition, was quantified. Hydrothermal processing results in significant changes occurring individual sugars of the grit. During culinary treatment these changes are levelled out, but in the end the level of virtually all types of sugar is higher in the gruel cooked with hydrothermally treated grit than in that prepared with initial, untreated grit. The oats flour is distinguished by a high glucose, maltose, fructose and saccharose content. A fall of the reducing sugars level coming as a result of thermal and culinary treatment is explained by their participating in the reaction of melanoidine formation. On the other hand, a rise in their content under rigorous conditions and in the production of oat flour is due to the starting of the starch hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates↗