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PubMedDate not supplied

Analysis of milk-based infant formula. Phase IV. Iodide, linoleic acid, and vitamins D and K: U.S. Food and Drug Administration-Infant Formula Council: collaborative study.

In 1982, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the Infant Formula Council and its member companies, contract laboratories, and other government laboratories began a study of analytical methods for the nutrients listed in the Infant Formula Act of 1980. Phases I, II, III, and V have been completed. The present report provides data on Phase IV, in which 13 laboratories collaboratively studied an ion-selective electrode method for analyzing iodide, a gas chromatographic method for linoleic acid, and 2 liquid chromatographic (LC) methods each for vitamins D and K. Data were insufficient to evaluate one each of the LC methods studied for vitamins K and D. The relative standard deviations (RSD) are sufficient for the nutrient levels found in infant formula. RSDs (%) for repeatability (RSDr) and reproducibility (RSDR), respectively, were as follows: iodide, 4.0-11.4 and 13.5-18.2; linoleic acid, 1.0-1.6 and 3.5-5.1; vitamin K1, 3.2-16.0 and 6.2-19.4; and vitamin D3, 4.2 and 35.0. The recommendation to adopt the method for vitamin D was supported by the results of a ministudy. All laboratories were capable of using these methods with little training. The methods for determination of iodide, linoleic acid, and vitamins D and K in ready-to-feed milk-based infant formula have been adopted first action by AOAC International.

Chromatography, Gas↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Feeding of premature infant formula after hospital discharge of infants weighing less than 1800 grams at birth.

A randomized, double-blind study was conducted to determine whether continued feeding of premature infant formula after hospital discharge improve biochemical measures of bone mineral or protein status and anthropometrics during the first 8 and 12 weeks, respectively, after initial hospital discharge. Forty-three subjects were randomized to receive either a 20 kcal/ounce standard cow's milk-based formula with iron or a 20 kcal/ounce premature infant formula with iron for 8 weeks after hospital discharge. Sixteen exclusively breast-fed infants (mother's own milk) who received a multivitamin supplement with iron were compared with infants in both formula groups. There were no differences among the three groups in gender, birth weight, gestational age, or weight and age at the time of study entry. Alkaline phosphatase values were lower in infants receiving premature infant formula than in those receiving standard formula 8 weeks after discharge. Phosphorus values were lower and alkaline phosphatase values higher in the human milk-fed group than in both formula groups 8 weeks after discharge despite supplementation with calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D before and during the study. At 8 weeks after discharge, human milk-fed infants also had lower transferrin levels than infants fed formulas. Infants in both formula groups grew similarly in weight, whereas the infants fed human milk weighed less throughout the study. The group fed premature infant formula had greater mean length and head circumference than the standard formula or human milk-fed groups. These data indicate that premature infants weighing < 1800 gm at birth may benefit from the continuation of premature infant formula during the first 8 weeks after initial hospital discharge.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2000

Infant feeding: a critical look at infant formulas.

Commercially available infant formulas serve as the best alternative to human milk when breastfeeding is not possible. Infant formulas are designed specifically to mimic the composition of human milk or the functional aspects of human milk feeding. This review highlights the issues related to the composition of infant formulas. The most hotly debated issue currently is whether to add long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to infant formulas. Other controversial topics include the safety and efficacy of soy-based protein formulas, protein quantity and quality as they relate to the infant's nutritional needs and feeding tolerance, and the replacement of lactose with other carbohydrate sources for specialized infant formulas. Recent modifications in the fat blend of infant formulas have led to improved fat digestibility. However, the full spectrum of benefits associated with the addition of nucleotides awaits further study. Modifications to infant formulas are made when the preponderance of scientific evidence suggests that the compositional change will better meet the nutritional needs of the infant.

Aluminum↗
PubMed2001

An infant formula free of glycomacropeptide prevents hyperthreoninemia in formula-fed preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: Hyperthreoninemia is a well-known phenomenon in infants fed a whey protein-predominant formula. Sweet whey is commonly used for the production of these whey-predominant infant milk formulas. Sweet whey contains not only whey proteins but also the threonine-rich glycomacropeptide (GMP). In the current study, an experimental formula based on acid whey without GMP and a formula based on sweet whey with GMP (threonine content 17.2% higher than in the experimental formula) but otherwise with identical composition were tested with particular respect to threonine metabolism. METHODS: Fourteen preterm infants appropriate for gestational age were enrolled in this randomized cross-over study. After a feeding period of at least 7 days, the nutrition of each infant was switched to the other formula for the second feeding period. At the end of each feeding period, the concentrations of creatinine and amino acids in the plasma and in the urine were measured. RESULTS: In the plasma, the threonine concentration was significantly lower in the group fed the experimental GMP-free formula than in the group fed the sweet whey formula (P < 0.001). Renal excretion of all essential amino acids was generally very low and less than 2% of the intake, indicating that the kidneys had no marked homeostatic function with respect to plasma amino acid. The plasma concentrations of the threonine metabolites glycine and serine, and that of urea were not influenced by diet. CONCLUSION: Feeding a whey protein-predominant bovine milk produced from acid whey protein reduces significantly the hyperthreoninemia commonly found in formula-fed preterm infants. Thus, acid whey formulas should be recommended for feeding preterm infants.

Amino Acids↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A probabilistic estimation of fluoride intake by infants up to the age of 4 months from infant formula reconstituted with tap water in the fluoridated regions of Ireland.

Two probabilistic models were developed to estimate the acute and chronic exposure to fluoride of exclusively formula-fed infants aged 0-4 months as a result of the consumption of infant formula reconstituted with fluoridated tap water in Ireland. The estimates were based on calculated infant formula consumption and accepted body weight standards, together with reported concentrations of fluoride in infant formula powder and measured values for the fluoride content of water in Ireland. The mean acute exposure of infants to fluoride on any single day in areas served by 387 fluoridated water supplies was estimated to be between 0.11 and 0.14 mg/kg body weight depending on age group (95th percentiles 0.2 and 0.26 mg/kg b.w., respectively). These predicted intakes were well below the intake of fluoride associated with acute toxic effects, which is considered to be 5 mg fluoride (F(-))/kg body weight. The mean chronic exposure of infants to fluoride was estimated to be between 0.106 and 0.170 mg/kg b.w./day depending on body weight (95th percentiles 0.108 and 0.172 mg/kg b.w./day, respectively). This estimate described the average daily fluoride intake of infants during the first 4 months of life residing in the areas served by 226 water supplies that achieved an average yearly fluoride concentration below 1.03 mg/l. Dental fluorosis may be considered to be the only risk at these low doses and from our work it is estimated that there is a very low risk of moderate dental fluorosis of the permanent dentition in infants exposed to fluoride at these levels.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1990

Acceptability, tolerance, and nutritional value of a rice-based infant formula.

An infant formula based on high protein rice flour, with added lysine and threonine, was evaluated in recovering malnourished infants. Acceptability, tolerance, and the digestibility of most major nutrients (energy 93.9 +/- 0.7%, fat 96.9 +/- 0.3%, carbohydrate 96.8 +/- 0.6% of intake) were excellent. Digestibility of protein, as with all rice products, was moderately low (80.1 +/- 3.3%), but its high biological value made N retention equal to that from casein. Plasma-free amino acids were consistent with the low essential/total amino acids ratio found in cereals, with slower absorption, and with the possibility that leucine was the first-limiting amino acid. Absorptions of Ca, Mg, PO4, and Zn were considered satisfactory. Energy costs of weight gain and the estimated percentage N in the weight gained during 14 days were comparable to those attained with the highest quality cow's milk-derived formulas in children of similar ages and nutritional status.

Diarrhea, Infantile↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Analysis of milk-based infant formula. Phase V. Vitamins A and E, folic acid, and pantothenic acid: Food and Drug Administration-Infant Formula Council: collaborative study.

In 1982, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the Infant Formula Council and its member companies, contract laboratories, and other government laboratories began a study of analytical methods for the nutrients listed in the Infant Formula Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-359). Four phases of the study have been completed and are discussed in earlier reports. The present report provides data on Phase V, in which 13 laboratories collaboratively studied individual methods for folic acid, pantothenic acid, and vitamin E, in addition to 2 methods for vitamin A. Vitamins A and E are determined by liquid chromatography. Folic acid and pantothenic acid are determined by microbiological methods using acidimetric and/or turbidimetric assays as the determinative step. In most cases, relative standard deviations for repeatability, RSDr, and reproducibility, RSDR, are as good as those that would be predicted from other collaborative studies. RSDr and RSDR values obtained for the 5 methods are 9.35 and 25.44% for folic acid, 4.59 and 10.23% for pantothenic acid, 8.46 and 11.69% for vitamin E, 3.62 and 9.72% for vitamin A (retinol isomers), and 4.9 and 10.5% for vitamin A (retinol). The 5 methods have been adopted first action by AOAC International.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Automated fluorometric determination of thiamine and riboflavin in infant formulas.

Commercial infant formulas were analyzed simultaneously for thiamine and riboflavin by an automated fluorometric method and by the AOAC manual fluorometric methods. For 10 products, the mean thiamine and riboflavin results determined using the automated method ranged from 104 to 113% and 90 to 112%, respectively, of those by the AOAC manual methods. The coefficients of variation for thiamine and riboflavin ranged from 1.05 to 3.90% and 0.60 to 2.48%, respectively, for the automated methods, and 1.48 to 3.86% and 0.69 to 10.9%, respectively, for the manual methods. Using the automated method, mean recoveries of thiamine and riboflavin added to samples were 103 and 104%, respectively. The automated method used a common sample preparation to determine both thiamine and riboflavin, and gave results equivalent to, or better than, those obtained by the manual methods.

Autoanalysis↗
PubMed2006

Faecal SIgA secretion in infants fed on pre- or probiotic infant formula.

Secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) plays an important role in the defence of the gastrointestinal tract. The level of faecal SIgA antibody is associated with increased neutralization and clearance of viruses. Formula-fed infants who lack the transfer of protective maternal SIgA from breast milk may benefit from strategies to support maturation of humoral immunity and endogenous production of SIgA. We aimed at studying the effects of standard, prebiotic and probiotic infant formulas on the faecal SIgA levels. At birth, infants of whom the mother had decided not to breastfeed were allocated to one of three formula groups in a randomized, double-blind fashion. Nineteen infants received standard infant formula; 19 received prebiotic formula containing a specific mixture of 0.6 g galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS)/fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS)/100 ml formula and 19 received probiotic formula containing 6.0 x 10(9) cfu Bifidobacterium animalis/100 ml formula. Faecal samples were taken on postnatal day 5, day 10, wk 4 and every 4 wk thereafter until wk 32. SIgA in faeces was determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. During the intervention, infants fed on prebiotic formula showed a trend towards higher faecal SIgA levels compared with the standard formula-fed infants reaching statistical significance at the age of 16 wk. In contrast, infants fed on the probiotic formula showed a highly variable faecal SIgA concentration with no statistically significant differences compared with the standard formula group. Formula-fed infants may benefit from infant formulas containing a prebiotic mixture of GOS and FOS because of the observed clear tendency to increase faecal SIgA secretion. Adding viable B. animalis strain Bb-12 to infant formula did not reveal any sign for such a trend.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed2004

Headspace gas chromatographic method for determining volatile compounds in infant formulas.

Powder infant milk formula quality deterioration and consequently the termination of shelf life results in the appearance of off-flavors mainly determined by a composite effect of spoilage volatiles. A headspace gas chromatographic method to determine propanal, pentanal and hexanal as the main volatiles present in the headspace of powder infant formula oxidation is described as a rapid indication of oxidative status. Under optimum conditions the limits of detection for propanal, pentanal and hexanal were 17.19, 16.87 and 19.60 ng and the limits of quantification were 37.37, 31.96 and 35.97, respectively. The calibration graphs of the method were linear from 25 to 1500, 20 to 3500 and 30 to 8500 ng for propanal, pentanal and hexanal, respectively, with determination coefficients exceeding 0.99. The precision results showed that the relative standard deviations of the repeatability and reproducibility were between 2.2 and 5.5%. The analytical method was simple, rapid, and reliable and permitted the analysis of a large number of formulas using small sample volumes.

Calibration↗
PubMed1982

Infant formula.

The modern infant formula has been evolved over many generations and major changes have taken place in the U.K. even in the last ten years to produce formulae which are predominantly of the low solute type. Modifications of scoop design and method of reconstitution, together with formulae changes, appear to have reduced considerably the problems associated with old type cows' whole milk formulae. From examination of nutritional guidelines and legislation available worldwide for infant formula, it is proposed that modifications of these guidelines are required especially with those proposed by Codex Alimentarius. Although it would seem sensible that mature breast milk analysis be used as a model for infant formula such a route may not give any improvement in the nutritional quality of milks currently available. Indeed perfect imitation of breast milk by artificial means is most unlikely. Possible areas for future research are briefly discussed.

Energy Metabolism↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Cow milk-specific humoral and cellular immune response in infants with high risk of atopy under feeding a whey hydrolysate infant formula].

BACKGROUND: Hypoallergenic infant formulas (HAF) were developed for atopy prevention in infants with high risk of atopy if these cannot be breastfed. HAF mount an antigen-specific immune response in infants. The aim of the study was to analyse the immune response in infants fed with a new infant formula based on a whey hydrolysate (HAF) and to compare it with that of exclusively breastfed controls. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Plasma concentrations of cow milk-specific IgE were analysed in 94 infants with high risk of atopy, 44 were exclusively breastfed, 50 were fed with HAF. In addition, cow milk-specific IgG antibodies (26 breastfed, 30 fed with HAF) as well as proliferation of periph-eral blood mononuclear cells to bovine beta-lactoglobulin (BLG) (41 breastfed, 47 fed with HAF) were tested. Specific IgE and IgG antibodies were determined using enzymoimmunometric assay (Alastat). Cellular proliferation was measured using tritiated thymidine incorporation assay after 6 day stimulation with BLG. RESULTS: Elevated IgE to cow milk antibodies (> 0.35 kU/L) were detected in two infants from the breastfed group and in one from the HAF-fed group. The plasma concentrations of milk specific IgG antibodies in HAF-fed infants were insignificantly higher than those in breastfed ones. No significant difference was found in bovine BLG-specific cell proliferation between both groups. CONCLUSION: Concerning the properties investigated like antigenicity, allergenicity and immunogenicity, the extensively hydrolysed whey based hypoallergenic formula does not significantly differ from mother milk in 6 month-old infants with an increased atopy risk.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1997

Ascorbic acid enhances hydroxyl radical formation in iron-fortified infant cereals and infant formulas.

UNLABELLED: Infant cereals and formulas are usually fortified with iron to prevent iron deficiency. To enhance iron bioavailability, supplemental ascorbic acid is recommended. Ascorbic acid is considered to be an antioxidant in vivo, but has pro-oxidant effects when exposed to non-protein-bound iron. We measured formation of free radicals in cereals and infant formulas after addition of ascorbic acid. The production of hydroxyl radicals was assessed by hydroxylation of salicylic acid to 2.5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,5-DHBA). Production of 2.5-DHBA increased with increasing ascorbic acid doses added. Addition of 0.8 mM ascorbic acid to breast milk produced less radicals (0.03 +/- 0.05 microM) than addition of ascorbic acid to low-iron formula (0.13 +/- 0.08 microM. P = 0.019), medium-iron formula (0.34 +/- 0.12 microM, P < 0.0001) or high-iron formula (0.44 +/- 0.08 microM. P < 0.0001). Even when iron content in breast milk was adjusted to a level comparable with that of formulas, production of 2,5-DHBA was lower. Breast milk seems to contain substances that reduce hydroxyl radical formation. CONCLUSION: Supplemental ascorbic acid causes hydroxyl radical formation in iron-fortified infant nutrients in vitro.

Ascorbic Acid↗
PubMed1996

Selenate fortification of infant formulas improves the selenium status of preterm infants.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether selenate fortification of infant formula would improve the selenium status of relatively well, growing, preterm infants during the first 12 wk of enteral feeding. A high-selenium group (n = 7, mean body weight = 1312 g) received selenate-fortified preterm and full-term infant formulas containing 0.36 and 0.22 mumol Se/L, respectively, and a low-selenium group (n = 10, mean body weight = 1262 g) received non-selenium-fortified preterm and full-term infant formulas containing 0.12 and 0.11 mumol Se/L, respectively. There were no significant differences in growth between the two groups throughout the study. The high-selenium group had significantly greater mean selenium intakes than did the low-selenium group from weeks 2 to 12. Plasma selenium concentrations decreased over the study period in the low-selenium group. Plasma selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase activity was greater in the high-selenium group at week 12 only. Red blood cell selenium concentrations decreased over time in both groups and were significantly greater in the high-selenium group at weeks 4, 8, and 12. Plasma selenium concentrations were significantly correlated with plasma glutathione peroxidase activity for all infants on study day 1 and at weeks 4 and 12. Selenium intake of all infants was significantly correlated with plasma glutathione peroxidase activity at 12 wk. Selenate fortification of infant formulas can improve the selenium status of preterm infants. Current selenium contents of infant formulas and recommendations for dietary intakes of selenium for some preterm infants may be inadequate.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed2001

Extent of thermal processing of infant formula affects copper status in infant rhesus monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Infant rhesus monkeys are excellent models in which to study the effect of infant formulas on trace element absorption and status. Infants fed powdered formula from birth exhibit normal growth and have blood variables similar to those of breast-fed infants. OBJECTIVES: The objectives were to evaluate the effects of feeding ready-to-feed (RTF) formulas exposed to different heat treatments to infant monkeys, and, for one of these formulas, to compare the effect of fortification with 2 iron concentrations. DESIGN: From birth to age 5 mo, infant monkeys (n = 6/group) were fed one of the following formulas exclusively: 1) 12 mg Fe/L processed in cans (RTF-12), 2) formula in glass bottles with 12 mg Fe/L and manufactured by an ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) process (UHT-12), or 3) formula manufactured by a standard thermal process (STP), containing either 8 (STP-8) or 12 (STP-12) mg Fe/L. All formulas had similar copper concentrations (0.6 mg Cu/L). Anthropometric measures and venous blood samples were taken monthly. RESULTS: Weight and length gain did not differ among groups; however, the STP-12 group weighed less than the UHT-12 group at ages 2, 4, and 5 mo. Hemoglobin values were significantly lower in the RTF-12 group than in all other groups at ages 4 and 5 mo and serum ferritin was lower in the RTF-12 group than in the STP-12 group at age 5 mo. Copper status was lower in STP-12 infants than in STP-8 infants. There was a progressive and significant decline in plasma copper, ceruloplasmin, and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase activity in infants fed canned formula (RTF-12). Furthermore, coat color changed from normal brown to silver. These outcomes suggest that the canned formula induced copper deficiency in infant monkeys. CONCLUSIONS: Excessive heat treatment of formula can have a pronounced negative effect on copper status. High iron concentrations did not improve iron status but may adversely affect copper status.

Animals↗