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PubMedDate not supplied

[Exposure to chloroform in persons frequenting an indoor swimming pool].

Exposure to chloroform (CHCl3) in indoor swimming pool swimmers. CHCl3 presence has been evidenced many times in water and air of indoor pools as a consequence of water chlorination with sodium hypochlorite or other chlorinated disinfectants. In previous studies CHCl3 in environmental air appeared at a high concentration within one meter over the surface of the water and was correlated to the number of swimmers inside the pool. CHCl3 has also been evidenced in blood serum samples of people present at the swimming pool, at different levels depending on: the concentration in the environmental air, the intensity and the length of the sport activity and the number of swimmers in the pool. At the end of the swimming session CHCl3 concentration tends to lower quickly and usually is no longer detectable within half an hour. Other studies have evidenced CHCl3 in breath samples (alveolar air) of a volunteer subject who swam one hour every day in an indoor pool in Modena. The spirometric parameters of the same subject were evaluated in order to estimate his CHCl3 uptake during time spent at the swimming pool, both resting and swimming in different modes. In the present paper the A.A. report data about CHCl3 exposure, intake and uptake bin five agonistic swimmers (three males and two females), members of the same sport association, and regularly attending the same indoor swimming pool in Modena. The five subjects have been examined during four different sessions. Within every session the samples were collected in five different moments according to the following scheme: 1) Hygiene Institute: samples of blood, alveolar air, environmental air. 2) Swimming pool, after 1 hour sitting near the pool edge: samples of alveolar air, environmental air (within 1 m on the water surface). 3) Swimming pool, after 1 hour swimming: samples of blood, alveolar air, environmental air (within 1 m on the water surface). 4) Hygiene Institute, 1 hour after the end of the swimming time: samples of alveolar air, environmental air. 5) Hygiene Institute, 30 min after the previous sampling: samples of alveolar air, environmental air. Spirometric parameters have been evaluated in every subject, after resting and swimming (point 2 and 3). CHCl3 uptake has been calculated using the following formula: U = V(CI--CA)t where: U = uptake (microgram/h) V = pulmonary ventilation (l/min) CI = inspired (environmental) concentration (microgram/m3) CA = alveolar concentration (microgram/m3) t = exposure time (min) CHCl3 levels after swimming always appeared quite high; however low levels were evidenced also before exposure (point 1).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Occupational exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools.

The study evaluated occupational exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in indoor swimming pools. Thirty-two subjects, representing the whole workforce employed in the five public indoor swimming pools in the city of Modena (Northern Italy) were enrolled. Both environmental and biological monitoring of THMs exposure were performed. Environmental concentrations of THMs in different areas inside the swimming pools (at the poolside, in the reception area and in the engine-room) were measured as external exposure index, while individual exposure of swimming pool employees was estimated by THMs concentration in alveolar air. The levels of THMs observed in swimming pool water ranged from 17.8 to 70.8 microg/l; the mean levels of THMs in ambient air were 25.6+/-24.5 microg/m3 in the engine room, 26.1+/-24.3 microg/m3 in the reception area and 58.0+/-22.1 microg/m3 at the poolside. Among THMs, only chloroform and bromodichloromethane were always measured in ambient air, while dibromochloromethane was detected in ambient air rarely and bromoform only once. Biological monitoring results showed a THMs mean value of 20.9+/-15.6 microg/m3. Statistically significant differences were observed according to the main job activity: in pool attendants, THMs alveolar air were approximately double those observed in employees working in other areas of the swimming pools (25.1+/-16.5 microg/m3 vs. 14.8+/-12.3 microg/m3, P < 0.01). THMs in alveolar air samples were significantly correlated with THMs concentrations in ambient air (r = 0.57; P < 0.001). Indoor swimming pool employees are exposed to THMs at ambient air levels higher than the general population. The different environmental exposure inside the swimming pool can induce a different internal dose in exposed workers. The correlation found between ambient and alveolar air samples confirms that breath analysis is a good biological index of occupational exposure to these substances at low environmental levels.

Adult↗

PubMed1985

Soil amoebas as biological markers to estimate the quality of swimming pool waters.

The legal biological survey of swimming pool waters is based on both the level of bacteriological contamination and the amount of material of fecal origin. The great number of soil amoebas and the occasional epidemiological risk involved led us to consider using these organisms as possible biological markers to estimate the quality of pool water and the extent of disinfection. During a 1-year survey of 54 public swimming pools, 765 superficial pool and tap water samples were collected. One portion (50 ml) drawn from 1-liter samples was filtered and cultured for amoebas. In specimens considered contaminated we detected at least 20 amoebas per liter, whereas uncontaminated samples contained fewer than 20 amoebas per liter. By keeping the threshold value voluntarily low, we were able to compare tap water with pool water and to monitor the quality of various disinfection procedures (i.e., chlorine, bromine, and Cu-Ag). The data suggest that the filters were not always protective against a high concentration of amoebas. Furthermore, these disinfection procedures were not equally efficient according to estimates based on biological criteria. In addition, the quality of swimming pool water also depends on the quality of its source tap water. Thus, the numeration of soil amoebas can be used as an additional biological marker to estimate the quality of swimming pool water.

Amoeba↗

PubMed1983

The safety standards of domestic swimming pools 1980-1982.

The accessibility and safety standards of domestic swimming pools were studied for a sample of 1118 five-year-old children. Comparison with data collected in 1980 indicated two major trends. First, there has been an increase in the number of children in this birth cohort who had a swimming pool on their property or on a neighbouring property: in 1980 31 percent of children were living on a property with a swimming pool or had neighbours with a swimming pool; in 1982 this figure had risen to 41 percent. Coupled with this increasing number of swimming pools there was a marked decline in pool safety standards. In 1980 one in five pools lacked any safety features whereas in 1982 nearly half of the pools surveyed lacked these features. This situation of an increasing number of domestic pools associated with declining safety standards may be a factor in the increasing number of child drownings in domestic swimming pools in New Zealand. The mothers were also questioned about their attitudes to fencing legislation or by-laws requiring adequate pool fencing and gates. This showed strong support with 86 percent of mothers being in favour of such regulations and only 9 percent declaring disagreement with such a move.

Attitude↗

PubMed2006

Exposure to trichloramine and respiratory symptoms in indoor swimming pool workers.

The association between swimming pool characteristics and activities of employees and respiratory symptoms in employees was studied. Trichloramine levels were measured to evaluate relationships with pool characteristics and to estimate long-term exposure levels. Questionnaires were available from 624 pool workers and 38 swimming facilities. Chloramine levels were measured by area sampling over 2-h periods and analysed using ion chromatography. Work-related and general respiratory symptoms, and symptoms indicative of atopy and bronchial hyperresponsiveness were considered. Respiratory symptom prevalence among pool workers was compared with symptoms in a Dutch population sample. Chloramine levels were modelled with regression analysis. This model was used to estimate long-term average chloramine levels for each pool studied. Employees with higher exposure reported upper respiratory symptoms with greater frequency. Upper respiratory symptoms were statistically significantly associated with cumulative chloramine levels (odds ratio (OR) >1.4 for hoarseness, lost voice, sinusitis). General respiratory symptoms were significantly elevated compared with a Dutch population sample (OR ranged 1.4-7.2). An excess risk for respiratory symptoms indicative of asthma was observed in swimming pool employees. Aggravation of existing respiratory disease or interactions between irritants and allergen exposures are the most likely explanations for the observed associations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

[Helminth and protozoan findings in the water of school swimming pools].

In the year 1993 repeated parasitological examinations of water and the equipment of an indoor school swimming pool were made. The sanitary and hygienic regime of the swimming pool was not respected and parasitological findings corresponded to this fact. Examinations of the swimming pool revealed the presence of helminths--Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis and Taenia saginata, as well as of protozoa--Giardia intestinalis and Entamoeba coli. The parasites were detected in samples taken under operation conditions from free water, from walls of the swimming pool an from its equipment, as well as from the sediment in sand filters. The authors pointed out that increased occurrence of parasites was connected with exceeding of swimming pool capacity. They noted also massive occurrence of non-pathogenic protozoa in water and sediment of the swimming pool, which was considered an indicator of increased pollution. They drew attention to the possibility of infection with intestinal parasites present in the swimming pool water. The conditions are discussed which enable parasites to reach the stage in which they are can infect bathing people and cause parasitoses in them. The authors suggested which places of a swimming pool should be examined in the course of parasitological investigations. They took steps to prevent contamination of swimming pool water with developmental stages of parasites and to prevent their maturation.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[A microbiological and physicochemical analysis of the water in swimming pools on the island of Tenerife].

BACKGROUND: A microbiological and physiochemical analysis has been made from 60 samples of water from two swimming pools in Santa Cruz de Tenerife in order to know the hygienic condition and to establish the most adequate microbiological indicators. The water of the two swimming pools has a different origin: sea water (Swimming pool B) and public supply (Swimming pool A), and so, different processings are used. METHODS: The analytical methodology was based on the Spanish current day regulations for the control of drinkable waters for public use, as well as on the methods the American Public Health Association recommends. RESULTS: There have been found differences between one swimming pool and the other, depending basically on the water characteristics and the processings used to treat it; there exists a greater microbiological contamination in the samples from the swimming pool B. It has been proved that medium R2A is better than medium P.C.A. to recount total mesophilic aerobes in both swimming pools. CONCLUSIONS: The isolation of St. aureus species in samples from the swimming pool B makes of it a possible microbiological indicator for the hygienic control of swimming pool waters of marine origin. Likewise, the presence of mycobacterium species in samples of the swimming pool A confirms its resistance to concentrations of growth inhibitors of free chlorine.

Chemical Phenomena↗

PubMed1980

Nitrates, chlorates and trihalomethanes in swimming pool water.

Water from swimming pools in the Miami area was analyzed for nitrates, chlorates and trihalomethanes. The average concentrations of nitrate and chlorate found in freshwater pools were 8.6 mg/liter and 16 mg/liter respectively, with the highest concentrations being 54.9 mg/liter and 124 mg/liter, respectively. The average concentration of total trihalomethanes found in freshwater pools was 125 micrograms/liter (mainly chloroform) and in saline pools was 657 micrograms/liter (mainly bromoform); the highest concentration was 430 micrograms/liter (freshwater) and 1287 micrograms/liter (saltwater). The possible public health significance of these results is briefly discussed.

Chlorates↗

PubMed1992

[Halogenated organic compounds in swimming pool water].

18 different swimming pool waters in the Bonn-Rhein-Sieg area were analysed for trihalogenmethanes, halogenated acetic acids, 2,2-dichloropropionic acid, dihalogenacetonitriles and chloral hydrate. Most substances mentioned above were determined in almost every sample reaching total concentrations up to 538 micrograms/l. Considering the results one can see that some of the main pollutants are polar organic compounds like di- and trichloroacetic acid as well as chloral hydrate.

Acetonitriles↗

PubMed2003

Childhood drowning: barriers surrounding private swimming pools.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the causes of child drowning and determine the need for changes in the legislation as well as improvements to the inspection and enforcement of current legislation related to barriers surrounding private swimming pools. METHODS: There were 3 stages to the study: a retrospective review of coroner's data, an audit of swimming pool inspections, and in-depth interviews with swimming pool inspectors in Western Australia. The incidence of childhood drowning (per population) and compliance rates of swimming pools (per 1000 swimming pools) to the legislation were measured. RESULTS: During the 12-year observational period (1988-2000) 50 children younger than 5 years drowned in private swimming pools in Western Australia with an overall incidence of drowning of 4.4 per 100 000 children per year. Sixty-eight percent of drownings occurred in pools that did not have 4-sided fencing with an almost 2-fold increased risk (incidence rate ratio: 1.78; 95% confidence interval: 1.40-1.79) of a child's drowning in a swimming pool with 3-sided versus 4-sided fencing. The compliance rate of swimming pools (compliance to the current legislation) at first inspection was approximately 400 per 1000 swimming pools. CONCLUSIONS: Almost two thirds of the swimming pools in which children drowned had only 3-sided fencing. With a combination of a change in legislation, enhanced inspection processes, and public education, the incidence of drowning in private swimming pools in Western Australia could be reduced in the coming years.

Architectural Accessibility↗

PubMed1991

Immersion events in residential swimming pools. Evidence for an experience effect.

BACKGROUND: --Drowning and near-drowning in residential swimming pools are leading causes of morbidity and mortality for young children. We tested the hypothesis that the period immediately after a pool is acquired is a time of high risk for these events. This study was also designed to provide population-based data on swimming pool immersion events, regardless of severity. METHODS: --We conducted a mail survey of a probability sample of Sacramento County, California, households with in-ground swimming pools in January 1988; 80% of eligible subjects responded. Onset of exposure to a pool was defined as the month in which (1) the responding household had a pool installed, or (2) the responding household first occupied a residence with a pool. Exposures began in 1959 through 1987. RESULTS: --The home swimming pool immersion event rate was 11 per 1000 pool-years. The rate per 1000 pool-years was higher for the first 6 months of exposure than thereafter (0 to 6 months, 44; 7 to 24 months, 14; greater than 24 months, seven), but 77% of events occurred outside the high-risk period. For households whose exposures began in 1984 through 1987, the immersion event rate was 51 per 1000 pool-years overall and 123 per 1000 pool-years for the first 6 months of pool exposure; these increases probably represent underreporting of earlier events. In this group, 48% of events occurred outside the high-risk period. The family swimming pool accounted for 91% of immersion events at the respondents' homes. CONCLUSIONS: --The residential swimming pool is an important hazard for pool-owning households. The first 6 months of exposure constitute a high-risk period, but many immersion events occur later. Pool drowning prevention programs may focus on newly acquired swimming pools and their owners but should be as broad as possible to maximize their effectiveness.

California↗

PubMed1978

[Pseudomonas aeruginosa in swimming pool waters (author's transl)].

During the year 1977 we examined 2226 samples of swimming pool waters for colony counts, Escherichia coli and coliforms according to the German standards for drinking water. In addition, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated out from 180 of those samples. This microorganism was found in 4.7% of samples from public municipal swimming pools, in 4.1% from swimming pools in schools, in 13.1% from swimming pools in hotels, boarding-houses, hydropathic establishments, sanatoria, blocks of flats and private dwellings as well as in 38% (!) from swimming pools in hospitals. P. aeruginosa could rarely be isolated together with E. coli or coliforms. However, it was often found in samples, which were faultless according to the bacteriological standards for drinking water. Its necessity as an additional important hygienic parameter will be discussed.

Germany, West↗

PubMed2004

Poor-quality water in swimming pools associated with a substantial risk of otitis externa due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

There are many large and small public outdoor and indoor swimming pools in Tehran that hundreds of people use, especially on hot summer days. The bacteriological quality of the water of some of these pools was assayed over a period of about one year (2001-2002). To assess if these swimming pools were a health risk to users, eleven public swimming pools, in the east and northeast of the city, were examined, and the exposed people were monitored. Samples of swimming-pool waters were examined for colony counts, Escherichia coli and coliforms. In addition, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated from nine (81.8%) of those pools. P. aeruginosa grew in seven (63.6%) of the swimming-pool water samples. In two (18.2%) other samples, in addition to P. aeruginosa, high rates of total bacterial count, total coliforms and faecal coliform counts were also found. At the same time, users of the swimming pools were asked to complete a questionnaire. Ear swabs were collected from 179 users with a history of ear problems during the previous two weeks. An adequate control group was chosen randomly from those who never used the investigated pools. P. aeruginosa was isolated from the ear swabs of 142 (79.3%) of the cases, as well as from 4% of the controls. Results were matched for age, sex, duration of time spent in the pools, place of occurrence and other useful information. Investigation of the contaminated swimming pools revealed that chlorination was often inadequate, especially when high numbers of people led to overuse of the pools. Although the results of this research showed that otitis externa was strongly associated with the swimming pools, due to P. aeruginosa, an extensive follow-up study is needed to determine the other possible health risks associated with public pools.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

[Swimming pool accidents in Denmark].

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this article was to estimate injuries in connection with swimming pool activities. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Through The Register of Accidents of The State Institute of Public Health, data of injuries in swimming pools were collected for the period 1998-1999. In that period of time the NOMESKO-classification was used for registration of injuries, a specific classification based on registration of injuries at five different Danish hospitals corresponding to 14% of the Danish population. RESULTS: During the period of investigation the average number of injuries was 349 per year, corresponding to a rate of incidence of 49.9 per 100,000. There was a considerable dominance of the youngest age groups among the injured. The age group 0-14 years accounted for 60% of the injured. The dominant type of injury was simple fall. The type of lesions varied according to the age of the injured. DISCUSSION: There was an insignificant increase from 1998 to 1999. Due to a presumed difference in iatrotropic threshold there was probably a bias of selection. The number of injuries corresponded to a total of 2500 injuries in Danish swimming pools per year, corresponding to 1 injury per 10,000 persons using Danish swimming pools. There were no comparable studies, neither Danish nor foreign. In Danish swimming pools no recommendations were available, only what we call advice on how to conduct oneself in the pool area. It would probably be possible to reduce the number of injuries in Danish swimming pools by using preventive steps, for instance non-skid mats, ban on running and elimination of sharp and hard objects in swimming pools.

Accidents↗

PubMed2004

Presence of virulent strains of amphizoic amoebae in swimming pools of the city of Szczecin.

The studies included 10 public indoor swimming pools and 3 public open-air swimming pools located in the city of Szczecin. In 2003, water samples were collected for detection of virulent amphizoic amoebae strains. In all pools, 16 strains of thermophilic Acanthamoeba spp. were isolated, 5 of which proved virulent for mice. No pathogenic strains were detected in the water sampled in the indoor swimming pools, and the virulent strains, AD 16, AD 148, AD 166, AM 17, and AM 148, were found only in the open-air swimming pools. The post-mortem studies of mice that had been inoculated with these strains revealed the amoebae invasions in brain, lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen.

Acanthamoeba↗

PubMed1986

A simple method for counting Staphylococcus aureus in swimming pool water.

Staphylococcus aureus counts from swimming pool water were determined by the membrane filtration technique. Water samples were passed through a membrane filter and then put on Baird-Parker media. After incubation, the filters were transferred to nutrient agar, and incubated at 37 degrees C, for 3 h. After removal of the filters, the plates were incubated at 60 degrees C for 2 h. An overlay of toluidine blue agar was added and the plates reincubated for 4 h at 37 degrees C. The formation of thermonuclease correlated with the formation of coagulase, and the results indicated that Staphylococcus aureus could be present in swimming pool water without the presence of either coliform or faecal coliform bacteria.

Enterobacteriaceae↗

PubMed1990

[Microbiological and chemical analyses of indoor swimming pools and virucidal effect of chlorine in these waters].

Virological and bacteriological examinations and chemical analysis were made of 24 water samples from 6 public indoor swimming pools in Aichi Prefecture. In 3 of these swimming pools, sodium hypochlorite was used as a disinfectant and in the remainder trichloroisocyanurates. All samples were negative for adenovirus per 20 liters. Coliform group was detected in one sample with 26.7 mg/l cyanuric acid. Total plate counts ranged from 0 to 1 per ml in the swimming pools treated with sodium hypochlorite and 0 to 51 in those with trichloroisocyanurates. Turbidity, pH and potassium permanganate concentrations in the samples were within allowable limits. Seven of 24 samples did not meet the recommended value of 0.4 mg/l for free chlorine residuals. Ammonium nitrogen was detected in one pool water with trichloroisocyanurates. In 11 of 12 water samples of swimming pools using sodium hypochlorite, poliovirus 1 (2 x 10(4) PFU/0.2 ml) was inactivated within 1 min under the condition of 1.0 mg/l free available chlorine and 25 degrees C. In 11 of 12 water samples of 3 swimming pools using trichloroisocyanurates, poliovirus type 1 survived after 2 min contact while in 5 samples poliovirus type 1 survived after 5 min contact. This shows that the risk of viral infection is greater in swimming pool water treated with chlorinated isocyanurics than that with sodium hypochlorite. The operator of the swimming pool should pay special attention to the control of water quality and free residual chlorine value.

Adenoviridae↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Applicability of the new law of State and Regional Agreement on management of swimming pools].

The Authors carried out a survey on private and public managers of 80 Italian swimming pools to evaluate the hygienic aspects and safety of the swimming pools. Participants were submitted to a set of questions about the modifications recently brought to the Act on management of the swimming pools during 2003. The study showed a poor knowledge about the hygienic-safety parameters, in particular of chlorine doses, range of temperature and frequency of daily turnover of the swimming pool water. The respect of chemical-physical parameters is necessary not only to assure an adequate microbial control of the water, but also to reduce the production of irritant and potentially toxic substances. The Authors pointed out the need of greater attention to hygienic aspects in order to reduce health risks, deriving from an uncorrected application of the laws, and to provide a greater comfort to the users of swimming pools.

Chlorine↗