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PubMed1998

Characterization of allergens in plant-derived spices: Apiaceae spices, pepper (Piperaceae), and paprika (bell peppers, Solanaceae).

Allergens in spices from the botanic families Apiaceae, Piperaceae, and Solanaceae were characterized. IgE-immunoblotting and IgE-inhibition experiments revealed broad cross-reactivity among spices and to pollen-derived proteins. Moreover, monoclonal antibodies raised against cross-reactive pollen allergens (profilin, Bet v 1) detected homologous proteins in almost every spice source analyzed. It can be concluded that allergy to spices rarely represents an autonomous sensitization, but is rather a consequence of pollen allergy on the basis of immunologic cross-reactivity.

Allergens↗

PubMed1998

Bell peppers (Capsicum annuum) express allergens (profilin, pathogenesis-related protein P23 and Bet v 1) depending on the horticultural strain.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the role of bell peppers in food allergy. We collected sera from 11 patients with food allergy to bell peppers to analyze bell pepper extracts for allergen composition. METHODS: Proteins of mature fruits of eight horticultural strains of bell peppers were extracted and tested with patients' sera for IgE binding and with monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies in immunoblot. RESULTS: Profilin was detected in bell pepper extracts by an anti-celery profilin antibody. It showed high IgE binding activity in all extracts, which could be inhibited by recombinant birch pollen profilin. Anti-birch pollen monoclonal antibody BIP3, directed against birch pollen proteins between 30 and 69 kD, bound to bell pepper antigens of comparable molecular weights. A homologue of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1 was detected in four of eight horticultural strains of bell peppers, and was shown to bind IgE in 1 of the 11 patients. A 23-kD allergen of bell peppers was shown to correspond to the 23-kD major paprika allergen by IgE absorption experiments. Its N-terminal sequence showed 100% identity to P23 from tomatoes. CONCLUSION: The appearance of profilin in all and Bet v 1 in 50% of the tested horticultural strains indicates that bell peppers have to be considered potentially dangerous for Bet v 1- and profilin-sensitized patients. Moreover, in 4 of 8 horticultural strains of bell peppers a homologue of the osmotin-like protein P23 from tomatoes is responsible for substantial IgE binding. Contact with Bet v 1 and P23 homologues in bell peppers can therefore be minimized by avoidance of the respective horticultural strains.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Effects of red-pepper diet on the energy metabolism in men.

We investigated the effects of dietary red pepper on the energy metabolism in male subjects. In the first experiment, after having a standardized dinner on the previous evening, the subjects consumed a breakfast (650 kcal) either with or without 10 g of red pepper. For 150 min after the meal, they took a rest and their expired gas was collected. During the initial 30 min after the meal, the energy expenditure tended to be higher in the red-pepper diet period than in the control diet period. For the remaining 120 min, no difference in the energy expenditure was found between the red-pepper diet period and the control diet period. However the carbohydrate oxidation was significantly higher in the red-pepper diet period than in the control diet period while the lipid oxidation was lower in the red-pepper diet period than in the control diet period for 150 min after the meal. In the second experiment, the subjects consumed a breakfast with 10 g of red pepper after an oral administration of propranolol or a placebo. The propranolol abolished the increase in energy expenditure during the initial 30 min due to the meal containing red pepper. For the remaining 120 min, no difference in energy expenditure was found between the propranolol period and the placebo period. These results suggest than an increase in the energy expenditure after the meal containing red pepper appeared only immediately after the meal ingestion and a red-pepper diet increases the carbohydrate oxidation without increasing total energy expenditure for 150 min after the meal. And an increase in the energy expenditure immediately after the meal containing red pepper is considered to be caused by beta-adrenergic stimulation.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Effects of red pepper on appetite and energy intake.

Two studies were conducted to investigate the effects of red pepper (capsaicin) on feeding behaviour and energy intake. In the first study, the effects of dietary red pepper added to high-fat (HF) and high-carbohydrate (HC) meals on subsequent energy and macronutrient intakes were examined in thirteen Japanese female subjects. After the ingestion of a standardized dinner on the previous evening, the subjects ate an experimental breakfast (1883 kJ) of one of the following four types: (1) HF; (2) HF and red pepper (10 g); (3) HC; (4) HC and red pepper. Ad libitum energy and macronutrient intakes were measured at lunch-time. The HC breakfast significantly reduced the desire to eat and hunger after breakfast. The addition of red pepper to the HC breakfast also significantly decreased the desire to eat and hunger before lunch. Differences in diet composition at breakfast time did not affect energy and macronutrient intakes at lunch-time. However, the addition of red pepper to the breakfast significantly decreased protein and fat intakes at lunch-time. In Study 2, the effects of a red-pepper appetizer on subsequent energy and macronutrient intakes were examined in ten Caucasian male subjects. After ingesting a standardized breakfast, the subjects took an experimental appetizer (644 kJ) at lunch-time of one of the following two types: (1) mixed diet and appetizer; (2) mixed diet and red-pepper (6 g) appetizer. The addition of red pepper to the appetizer significantly reduced the cumulative ad libitum energy and carbohydrate intakes during the rest of the lunch and in the snack served several hours later. Moreover, the power spectral analysis of heart rate revealed that this effect of red pepper was associated with an increase in the ratio sympathetic: parasympathetic nervous system activity. These results indicate that the ingestion of red pepper decreases appetite and subsequent protein and fat intakes in Japanese females and energy intake in Caucasian males. Moreover, this effect might be related to an increase in sympathetic nervous system activity in Caucasian males.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

The making of a bell pepper-shaped tomato fruit: identification of loci controlling fruit morphology in Yellow Stuffer tomato.

The heirloom tomato cultivar Yellow Stuffer produces fruit that are similar in shape and structure to fruit produced by the bell pepper varieties of garden pepper. To determine the genetic basis of this extreme fruit type in tomato, quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis was performed on an F(2) population derived from a cross between Yellow Stuffer and the related species, Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium, which produces a small, round fruit typical of most wild species. F(2) plants were analyzed for both fruit size and the degree to which their fruit resembled the bell pepper. Three QTL were determined to influence bell pepper shape and seven QTL influenced fruit mass. The map positions of all three bell shape and six out of seven fruit size QTL appear to be allelic to components of fruit morphology analyzed in this population and to major fruit morphology QTL reported previously, adding support to the hypothesis that the majority of fruit size and shape variation in cultivated tomato is attributable to allelic variation at a limited number of loci. However, novel loci controlling components of fruit morphology, such as elongated fruit shape, bumpiness, number of seed per fruit and flowers per inflorescence were identified in this study as well. The three bell shape loci involved are: bell2.1, bell2.2 and bell8.1, and appear to correspond to locule number2.1 ( lcn2.1) and fruit weight 2.2 ( fw2.2) and fruit shape 8.1 ( fs8.1), respectively. The Yellow Stuffer alleles at lcn2.1 and fw2.2 increase locule number and fruit size, respectively, hence contributing to the overall bell pepper shape. The Yellow Stuffer allele at fs8.1 causes convex locule walls, giving the extended, bumpy shape characteristic of bell peppers. In addition, most fruit size QTL correspond to loci controlling number of flowers per inflorescence and/or stem-end blockiness. Comparisons among previously identified fruit morphology loci in tomato, eggplant and pepper suggest that loci affecting several aspects of fruit morphology may be due to pleiotrophic effects of the same, orthologous loci in these species. Moreover, it appears that the evolution of bell pepper-shaped tomato fruit may have proceeded through mutations of some of the same genes that led to bell pepper-type fruit in garden pepper.

Capsicum↗

PubMed2002

Identification of the pepper SAR8.2 gene as a molecular marker for pathogen infection, abiotic elicitors and environmental stresses in Capsicum annuum.

Pepper ( Capsicum annuum L.) SAR8.2 genes, designated CASAR82A, B and C, which are induced by all the biotic and abiotic stresses, were isolated from a pepper cDNA library constructed with the mRNAs from pepper plants infected with Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria. The pepper CASAR82A, B and C gene products, which are very similar to each other in amino acid sequences, have 43-50% homology with those of tobacco SAR8.2 genes. The CASAR8.2 genes were not constitutively expressed in any of the organs of healthy pepper plants. In contrast, the CASAR82A gene was locally or systemically induced in pepper plants infected by X. campestris pv. vesicatoria, Colletotrichum coccodes or Phytophthora capsici. Strong induction of the CASAR82A gene also was found in pepper leaves treated with ethylene, methyl jasmonate, indole-3-acetic acid, abscisic acid, salicylic acid, benzothiadiazole, DL-beta- n-amino butyric acid or hydrogen peroxide. Interestingly, the transcription of the CASAR82A gene was rapidly triggered by high salinity, drought or low-temperature stresses, but not by mechanical wounding. In situ hybridization results revealed that the CASAR82A mRNAs were localized in phloem and epidermal cells of pepper leaf and stem tissues infected by C. coccodes and P. capsici, or treated with salicylic acid. These results thus suggest that pepper SAR8.2 genes may be valuable as a molecular marker for the detection of various pathogen infections, abiotic elicitors and environmental stresses.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1998

Antimutagenic activity of carotenoids in green peppers against some nitroarenes.

In Mexico, as well as in Central and South American countries, the consumption of peppers (Capsicum annuum) has been tradition for thousands of years; the per capita dietary intake of peppers is about 40 g/day. Peppers are an important source of beta-carotene and vitamin A, which have antimutagenic and/or anticarcinogenic properties. In the present study, Salmonella typhimurium tester strain YG1024 in the plate-incorporation test was used to examine the antimutagenicity of carotenois extracted from five different types of Capsicum spp. ('Chilaca', 'Poblano', 'Serrano', 'Jalapeño' and 'Pimiento') which were chosen, based on their consumption and availability on the local market. Extracts from these peppers were tested against 1-6-dinitropyrene (1,6-DNP) and 1,8-dinitropyrene (1,8-DNP) mutagenicity. Dose-response mutagenicity curves of 1-NP; 1,6-DNP and 1,8-DNP were obtained. For the antimutagenicity studies, doses of 0.05 microgram/plate, 0.20 ng/plate and 0.06 ng/plate for 1-NP, 1,6-DPN and 1,8-DNP respectively were chosen, and the number of net revertants/plate were 1008 for 1-NP, 512 for 1,6-DNP, and 712 for 1,8-DPN. Trans-beta-carotene and the extracts were not toxic to the bacteria at the concentrations tested. The extracts obtained from the peppers showed more inhibition than pure trans-beta-carotene on 1-NP; 1,6-DNP and 1,8-DNP mutagenicity. Chilaca pepper extract required 0.36 g (34 nmol expressed as trans-beta-carotene equivalents) of fresh pepper to inhibit 94% on 1-NP mutagenicity, 78% on 1,6-DNP mutagenicity and 84% on 1,8-DNP mutagenicity. Bell pepper ('Pimiento') extract required 1.53 g (50 nmol expressed as trans-beta-carotene) to obtain 87%, 79% and 73% inhibition on 1-NP; 1,6-DNP and 1,8-DNP mutagenicity respectively. Since pure beta-carotene inhibited only approximately 50% the mutagenicity of nitroarenes, these results suggest that each one of the pepper extracts have more than one antimutagenic compound (e.g., beta-carotene and xanthophylls) and those functional nutrients apparently have a synergistic effect.

Antimutagenic Agents↗

PubMed2003

Primary sensitization to sweet bell pepper pollen in greenhouse workers with occupational allergy.

BACKGROUND: In a previous investigation, a high prevalence of allergy to sweet bell pepper pollen was found among exposed horticulture workers. Allergy to plant-derived food is often the consequence of primary sensitization to common pollen allergens. OBJECTIVE: We therefore investigated the cross-reactivity between sweet bell pepper pollen and pollen from grass, birch or mugwort. METHOD: We selected 10 sera from greenhouse workers who had, besides specific IgE against sweet bell pepper pollen, also IgE to grass, birch or mugwort pollen. Cross-reactivity was tested by the inhibition of IgE binding to solid-phase coupled sweet bell pepper pollen extract. The 10 sera were also analysed for IgE binding to sweet bell pepper pollen by immunoblotting. RESULTS: With these sera, no or small inhibition of IgE binding to sweet bell pepper pollen extract was observed with grass, birch and mugwort pollen. With immunoblotting, major IgE-binding structures were seen at 14, 29 and 69 kDa in sweet bell pepper pollen extract. CONCLUSION: The results of our study demonstrate that sweet bell pepper pollen contains allergens that have no or limited cross-reactivity with common pollen allergens. With sera from the 10 patients tested, sensitization to sweet bell pepper pollen was not the consequence of primary sensitization to common pollen allergens.

Agricultural Workers' Diseases↗

PubMed2005

The effects of ripening stage and processing systems on vitamin C content in sweet peppers (Capsicum annuum L.).

Morrón pepper of 'Fresno de la Vega' (Capsicum annuum L.) is a big sweet variety cultivated in the province of León (northwestern Spain). Changes in vitamin C content of this variety of pepper as a function of ripeness, storage and different preservation systems were studied. The ascorbic acid content increases in peppers as they ripen. For green mature, breaker and red peppers values of 107.3+/-1.84, 129.6+/-3.11 and 154.3+/-7.56 mg/100 g edible portion were found. The vitamin C content for green mature and breaker peppers stored at room temperature (20 degrees C) increased up to 10 days of storage, reaching similar values as those obtained for red peppers direct from the plant. However, stored red ripe peppers showed a significant loss in vitamin C content, around 25%. Refrigeration at 4 degrees C for up to 20 days did not change the ascorbic acid content, except for red peppers, which showed losses around 15%. The ascorbic acid content was altered in response to the preservation procedures assayed. Reductions of 12% and 20-25% during the water blanching and canning process, respectively, were observed. Ascorbic acid retention during freezing was 60%, increasing when the product was previously blanched (87%). Dehydration of peppers resulted in an 88% decrease in ascorbic acid content, whereas freeze-drying did not cause significant losses.

Ascorbic Acid↗

PubMed2004

Characterization of cross-reactive bell pepper allergens involved in the latex-fruit syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Between 30% and 50% of individuals who are allergic to latex products are also allergic to specific plant foods, a fact that is well documented as the latex-fruit syndrome. Simultaneous sensitization to latex and bell pepper has been previously reported. Although bell pepper fruits are frequently consumed raw, cooked or as a spice, little is known about the cross-reactive allergens. OBJECTIVE: In this study we wished to identify bell pepper allergens involved in the latex-fruit syndrome. METHODS: Sera of four patients who displayed clinical symptoms to latex and bell pepper were used in immunoblot studies on protein extracts of three different cultivars of fresh bell pepper and fresh Hevea latex. Cross-reactive allergens were identified by inhibition experiments using recombinant Hev b 8 (latex profilin), and natural Hev b 2 (latex beta-1,3-glucanase) in addition to the protein extracts. A novel cross-reactive IgE-reactive 30 kDa protein was subjected to sequence analysis. RESULTS: Three patients displayed IgE to profilins from bell pepper fruits and latex. Two patients possessed IgE to Hev b 2, a latex beta-1,3-glucanase, and a homologous protein in bell pepper. One patient possessed IgE reactive with a protein of 30 kDa identified by N-terminal sequencing as an l-ascorbate peroxidase and another patient to a protein of 38 kDa. Additionally, IgE binding proteins in two higher molecular weight ranges showed cross-reactive capacities. CONCLUSION: Our findings show on the molecular level that bell pepper is part of the latex-fruit syndrome. For the first time we have identified the major latex allergen Hev b 2, a beta-1,3-glucanase, and the bell pepper l-ascorbate peroxidase as cross-reactive allergens. We were also able to show that profilins are responsible for some of the IgE cross-reactivity.

Adult↗

PubMed1984

Aspergillus parasiticus growth and aflatoxin production on black and white pepper and the inhibitory action of their chemical constituents.

Aspergillus parasiticus Speare NRRL 2999 growth and aflatoxin production in black and white pepper and the penetration of the fungus in black pepper corn over various incubation periods were studied. Also, the effects of piperine and pepper oil on growth and aflatoxin production were studied. Under laboratory conditions, black and white pepper supported aflatoxin production (62.5 and 44 ppb (ng/g), respectively) over 30 days of incubation. Fungal growth measured in terms of chitin was considerably less in white pepper than in black pepper. A histological study of black pepper corn showed the fungus penetrating up to the inner mesocarp and establishing itself in the middle mesocarp. Piperine and pepper oil were found to inhibit fungal growth and toxin production in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, both black and white pepper could be considered as poor substrates for fungal growth and aflatoxin production.

Aflatoxin B1↗

PubMed2003

Occupational rhinoconjunctivitis from white pepper.

A 44-year-old subject developed rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms when she was exposed to white pepper while working in the food industry. A positive skin prick test for white and black pepper extracts (1:10 w/v) were obtained. Specific IgE antibodies to white and black pepper were demonstrated by ELISA. The immunoblot analysis showed two IgE-reactive protein bands able to bind to IgE from white pepper extract of 11.8 kDa and 13.6 kDa and one band from black pepper extract of 11.8 kDa. IgE binding to blotted white and black pepper extract were inhibited by preincubation of patient serum with black pepper extract. A conjunctival provocation test was positive with a white pepper extract dilution of 1:100 w/v. We describe a patient with occupational rhinoconjunctivitis caused by hypersensitivity to white pepper.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

Effect of black pepper and piperine on bile secretion and composition in rats.

The influence of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and its active principle, piperine on the secretion and composition of bile was investigated in the rat. They were administered by gavage (black pepper at 250 or 500 mg and piperine at 12.5 or 25 mg/kg body wt.) or fed in the diet for 4 weeks (black pepper at 0.2 and 0.4%, piperine at 0.01 and 0.02%). The lower dose by gavage of black pepper caused an increase in bile solids while with other treatments bile secretion or dry matter in bile was not changed. Dietary feeding of black pepper caused an increase in bile flow with a concomitant decrease in bile solids -- a hydrocholagoguic effect. Cholesterol and bile acid output were not affected by black pepper or piperine at either level irrespective of the mode of administration; in contrast, the secretion of uronic acids in bile was enhanced by both levels of pepper as also of piperine indicating possible excretion of some of the components of black pepper or of piperine as glucuronides.

Alkaloids↗

PubMed2004

Effects of vermicomposts produced from food waste on the growth and yields of greenhouse peppers.

Vermicomposts, produced commercially from food wastes, were substituted at a range of different concentrations into a soil-less commercial bedding plant container medium, Metro-Mix 360 (MM360), to evaluate their effects on the growth and yields of peppers in the greenhouse. Six-week-old peppers (Capsicum annum L. var. California) were transplanted into 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 20% or 10% MM360 substituted with 0%, 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% vermicompost. All plants were watered three times weekly with 200 ppm Peter's Nutrient Solution from the time of transplanting up to 107 days. Peppers grown in potting mixtures containing 40% food waste vermicomposts and 60% MM360 yielded 45% more fruit weights and had 17% greater mean number of fruits than those grown in MM360 only. The mean heights, numbers of buds and numbers of flowers of peppers grown in potting mixtures containing 10-80% vermicompost although greater did not differ significantly from those of peppers grown in MM360. There were no positive correlations between the increases in pepper yields, and the amounts of mineral-N and microbial biomass-N in the potting mixtures, or the concentrations of nitrogen in the shoot tissues of peppers. Factors such as: an improvement of the physical structure of the potting medium, increases in populations of beneficial microorganisms and the potential availability of plant growth-influencing-substances produced by microorganisms in vermicomposts, could have contributed to the increased pepper yields obtained.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2003

Red pepper attenuates cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity and atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits.

BACKGROUND: The current study was conducted to examine the effect of red pepper supplementation on cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) activity, along with its anti-atherosclerotic effect in cholesterol-fed rabbits. METHODS: Rabbits were fed a 1% cholesterol diet for 12 weeks, including a 1% red pepper powder supplement. RESULTS: The red pepper supplemented group exhibited significantly lower CETP activity than the control group during the experimental period (P<0.05). The total cholesterol, triglyceride (TG), LDL-C, VLDL-C, and VLDL-TG levels and atherogenic index (AI) were all significantly lower in the red pepper group than in the control group (P<0.05), whereas the HDL-C level was significantly higher in the red pepper group than in the control group during the experimental period (P<0.05). Furthermore, the red pepper supplementation increased the fecal TG excretion (P<0.05). Based on a morphological examination, the red pepper supplemented group exhibited fewer fat droplet deposits than the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The current results suggest that red pepper attenuates atherosclerosis, plus plasma CETP would appear to be a risk marker of atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Factors Influencing texture retention of salt-free, acidified, red bell peppers during storage.

Red bell peppers were stored in a salt-free, acidified cover solution with sulfite as a microbial preservative. The texture retention of stored peppers was evaluated as a function of pH, acid, calcium, blanch treatment, and growing conditions of the peppers. Field-grown peppers softened at a faster rate than greenhouse-grown peppers and exhibited more variability in their ability to maintain texture during storage. Improved firmness retention of red peppers stored at 30 degrees C was observed when the pH was adjusted to be in the range of 3.4-3.8, when at least 5 mM calcium was added to the peppers, and when red peppers were blanched at 75 degrees C for at least 1 min.

Acetic Acid↗

PubMed2003

Three pathogen-inducible genes encoding lipid transfer protein from pepper are differentially activated by pathogens, abiotic, and environmental stresses.

The three cDNA clones, CALTPI, CALTPII, and CALTPIII, corresponding to pepper lipid transfer protein (LTP) genes were isolated from a pepper (Capsicum annuum) cDNA library from hypersensitive response (HR) lesions of leaves infected with Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria. The CALTP genes are well conserved in their coding region with 57-72% identity at the amino acid level, but display 72-83% identity at the nucleotide sequence level. The transcripts of the three CALTP genes differentially accumulated in pepper leaf, stem, and fruit tissues infected by X. campestris pv. vesicatoria, Phytophthora capsici and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The CALTP genes were also strongly induced in the systemic, upper leaves after immunization on lower leaves by either pathogenic or non-pathogenic bacteria. In situ hybridization results showed that the CALTPI mRNA was localized in phloem cells of vascular tissues in pepper leaf, stem and fruit tissues after pathogen infection. CALTPI and CALTPIII genes were predominantly expressed in various pepper tissues infected by pathogens, while infection by P. capsici and C. gloeosporioides did not induce the transcription of the CALTPII gene. Ethylene, methyl jasmonate and abscisic acid induced CALTPI and III gene expression in pepper leaves. Drought, high salinity, low temperature and wounding stresses also induced the expression of the CALTPI and CALTPIII genes in a similar manner. In contrast, only high salinity induced the CALTPII expression that was not generally affected by abiotic and other environmental stimuli. When compared with each other and with LTPs from other plants, CALTPI is more distantly related than CALTPII and CALTPIII sequences, indicating that the three pepper CALTP genes represent two different classes. These results thus show that CALTPI and CALTPIII genes, although different in sequence structure, are transcriptionally activated in pepper tissues by pathogen infection as well as abiotic and environmental stresses.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2004

Maximum tolerable dose of red pepper decreases fat intake independently of spicy sensation in the mouth.

Dietary red pepper suppresses energy intake and modifies macronutrient intake. We have investigated whether a stimulus in the mouth and the sensation of spiciness are necessary for red pepper-induced changes in energy and macronutrient intake in human volunteers. In a preliminary test, sixteen Japanese male volunteers tasted samples of a soup with graded doses of red pepper in order to define a moderate and a maximum tolerable (strong) dose of red pepper. On the day of the experiment, a standardised breakfast was given to the volunteers. At lunchtime, the subjects ingested one of four experimental soups containing either a placebo, a moderate or a strong dose of red pepper plus placebo capsules, or a placebo soup plus capsules delivering a strong dose of red pepper. The rest of the meal was given ad libitum to all subjects. The amount of food, protein and carbohydrate ingested was similar for all conditions. Energy and fat intake were similar after the ingestion of the moderate soup compared with placebo. However, the strong soup significantly lowered fat intake compared with placebo (P=0.043), and ingestion of strong capsules also tended to suppress it (P=0.080). Moreover, energy intake after strong soup and capsules tended to be lower than placebo (P=0.089 and 0.076, respectively). The present results indicate that the maximum tolerable dose is necessary to have a suppressive effect of red pepper on fat intake. The main site of the action of red pepper is not in the mouth.

Adult↗