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PubMed2004

Down-regulation of beta2-adrenergic receptor expression by exercise training increases IL-12 production by macrophages following LPS stimulation.

Three-week exercise training decreased the steady state level of beta(2)-adrenergic receptor (beta(2)AR) mRNA in peritoneal macrophages from BALB/c mice. When peritoneal macrophages from both exercise-trained and sedentary control mice were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interleukin (IL)-12 mRNA and protein expression was markedly higher in trained mice than in control mice. To determine whether enhanced production of IL-12 was associated with decreased expression of beta(2)AR, we transfected the macrophage cell line, RAW264, with a eukaryotic expression vector containing beta(2)ar cDNA, establishing a cell line overexpressing beta(2)AR (RAWar). Following LPS stimulation, IL-12 mRNA and protein expression was significantly lower in RAWar cells than in RAW264 cells transfected with vector alone (RAWvec). Furthermore, when the expression of transfected beta(2)AR in RAWar cells was down-regulated by a tetracycline repressor-regulated mammalian expression system, expression of IL-12 mRNA and protein following LPS stimulation tended to return to the levels in RAWvec cells. These findings indicate that macrophage production of IL-12 following LPS stimulation is regulated by the expression level of beta(2)AR, suggesting that the down-regulation of beta(2)AR expression associated with exercise training improves IL-12-induced type 1 helper T cell-mediated immune responses.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Effects of residential exercise training on heart rate recovery in coronary artery patients.

The aims of the present study are twofold: 1) to investigate whether heart rate recovery (HRR) after a cycle ergometry test is affected by exercise training and 2) to test the ability of HRR to replicate the baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) changes that occur in response to an exercise training program in coronary artery patients. We randomized 82 coronary artery patients undergoing a residential cardiac rehabilitation program to an exercise training group (TR; n = 43) and an untrained group (UTR; n = 39). All of the patients underwent an exercise test before and after the rehabilitation program. HRR was recorded at the end of the 1st and 2nd min after exercise. BRS was determined at rest before and after treatment. HRR after the 2nd min was significantly improved in TR patients (-21.4 +/- 0.9 beats/min) compared with UTR patients (-17.8 +/- 1.2 beats/min) at the end of the training program. Improvement in HRR paralleled that in BRS in TR patients (from 3.2 +/- 0.3 to 5.3 +/- 0.8 ms/mmHg; P < 0.001), whereas no significant change was evident in UTR patients (from 3.5 +/- 0 to 4.0 +/- 0.4 ms/mmHg; P = 0.230). Our data show that HRR in the 2nd min after the cessation of a cycle ergometer exercise test increased in coronary artery patients after an exercise training period. This result confirms the positive effect induced by exercise training on HRR and extends the conclusions of previous studies to different modalities of exercise (i.e., cycle ergometer). HRR might provide an additional simple marker of the effectiveness of physical training programs in cardiac patients.

Coronary Artery Disease↗

PubMed1995

Cardiovascular response to orthostatic stress: effects of exercise training modality.

The effects of exercise training posture on cardiovascular and baroreflex responses to orthostatic challenge were assessed in highly trained cyclists (CT, n = 8) and swimmers (ST, n = 8), and in untrained men (UT, n = 8). CT demonstrated the lowest orthostatic tolerance to lower body negative pressure (LBNP, 0 to -50 mmHg), with only 3 subjects completing the full LBNP procedures; 5 UT and all ST completed the testing. During LBNP, stroke volume (SV) decreases were similar in CT and ST, but greater than in UT. Mean pulse pressure and systemic vascular resistance (SVR) were reduced in CT relative to ST and UT at the highest levels of LBNP; the slope of the delta SVR/delta Zo and delta SVR/delta SV relationships in CT, used to assess peripheral vascular baroreflex function, were attenuated relative to the other groups. There were no between-group differences in the heart rate response to LBNP. The greater incidence of orthostatic intolerance observed in upright-versus supine-trained athletes during passive LBNP was linked to attenuated baroreflex control of peripheral vascular resistance.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Indomethacin suppresses the coronary flow response to hypoxia in exercise trained and sedentary rats.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The aim was to determine if prostaglandin like activity might be involved in changes due to exercise training in the coronary flow responses to hypoxia. DESIGN: The coronary flow response to hypoxia was measured under constant perfusion pressure in isolated perfused hearts from 12 endurance exercise trained rats and 12 control rats. Eight hearts were perfused with a solution containing indomethacin, a cyclo-oxygenase inhibitor, to determine its effect on any training induced changes in the coronary flow response to hypoxic stress. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL: 24 male Sprague-Dawley rats, 517 (SD 51) g, were used for this study. The animals were anesthetised and the hearts rapidly excised and perfused with a modified Langendorff perfusion system. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Under constant perfusion pressure, the hearts of endurance exercise trained rats had a greater increase in coronary flow during hypoxia relative to normoxia than did hearts of untrained rats, at 13.52(2.15) v 9.56(1.05) ml.min-1.g-1 dry heart weight. Indomethacin treatment abolished this difference and lowered coronary flow: exercise -3.81(3.75) ml.min-1.g-1; control 0.38(2.44) ml.min-1.g-1. CONCLUSIONS: The inhibition by indomethacin of the endurance exercise training induced potentiation of the coronary fluid flow response to hypoxia suggests that prostacyclin or a related compound may be involved in this adaptation to exercise.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Effect of decreased physical activity on bone mass in exercise-trained young rats.

The aim of this study was to determine whether decreased physical activity in exercise-trained young rats would result in a lower rate of bone gain or a reversal of the benefits of exercise. Thirty-five female Wistar rats, 6 weeks of age, were randomized into seven groups: 7 weeks of exercise (7EX), 7 weeks of sedentary control (7CN), 11 weeks of exercise (11EX), 7 weeks of exercise followed by 4 weeks of exercise cessation (7EX4C), 7 weeks of exercise followed by 4 weeks of decreased exercise frequency (7EX4F), 7 weeks of exercise followed by 4 weeks of decreased exercise intensity (7EX4I), and 11 weeks of sedentary control (11CN). The running intensity (speed) and duration were 25 m/min for 60 min/day at a frequency of 5 days/week. During the last 4 weeks, exercise frequency was reduced to 1 day/week in the 11EX4F group, and exercise intensity (speed) was reduced to 12 m/min in the 7EX4I group. After each period of exercise, the bone mineral content (BMC) of the proximal, middle, and distal tibiae, determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), was significantly greater in the 7EX and 11EX groups than in the 7CN and 11CN groups, respectively, but it was significantly lower in the 7EX4C group than in the 11EX group and did not differ significantly from the values of the 11CN group. Although the BMC of the proximal and middle tibiae did not differ significantly among the 7EX4F, 7EX4I, 7EX4C, and 11CN groups, the BMC of the distal tibia was significantly greater in the 7EX4F and 7EX4I groups than in the 11CN group and tended to be greater than in the 7EX4C group. The results of this study suggest that the effect of decreased exercise intensity and frequency on bone mass appears to be site specific in the tibia of the exercise-trained young rats. This study shows that exercise-trained young rats lose the benefits gained from exercise when exercise is completely ceased, resulting in the reduction of bone mass to levels that do not differ significantly from those of sedentary controls. At least, continuous exercise appears to be necessary for the maintenance of high bone mass.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2004

Exercise training improves cardiac function postinfarction: special emphasis on recent controversies on na+/ca2+ exchanger.

Exercise training instituted after myocardial infarction improves many steps involved in cardiac excitation-contraction coupling. Focusing on Na/Caexchange, current controversies regarding whether it mediates Cainflux during an action potential, whether it is increased or decreased in disease models, whether protein kinase A alters its activity, and whether exercise training affects its function are reviewed. Finally, a novel target for exercise training in the heart is suggested.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Dietary whey protein increases liver and skeletal muscle glycogen levels in exercise-trained rats.

We investigated the effect of different types of dietary protein on glycogen content in liver and skeletal muscle of exercise-trained rats. Twenty-four male Sprague-Dawley rats (approximately 100 g; n 6 per group) were divided into sedentary or exercise-trained groups with each group being fed either casein or whey protein as the source of dietary protein. Rats in the exercised groups were trained during 2 weeks using swimming exercise for 120 min/d, 6 d/week. Exercise training resulted in an increase in the skeletal muscle glycogen content. Furthermore, the whey protein group significantly increased the skeletal muscle glycogen content compared with the casein group. The increase in glycogen content in liver was significantly greater in rats fed the whey protein diet compared with those fed the casein diet. We also found that the whey protein diet increased the activity of liver glucokinase, whereas it decreased the activities of 6-phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase compared with the casein diet. However, hepatic total glycogen synthase activity and mRNA expression were similar with the two diets. In the skeletal muscle, whey protein decreased only 6-phosphofructokinase activity compared with casein. Total glycogen synthase activity in the skeletal muscle in the whey protein group was significantly higher than that in the casein group. The present study is the first to demonstrate that a diet based on whey protein may increase glycogen content in liver and skeletal muscle of exercise-trained rats. We also observed that whey protein regulated glycogen metabolism in these two tissues by different mechanisms.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Exercise training improves endothelium-mediated vasorelaxation after chronic coronary occlusion.

The present study evaluated combined effects of chronic coronary occlusion and exercise training on endothelial function. Gradual occlusion was produced by placement of an ameroid constrictor around the proximal left circumflex (LCX) coronary artery of female swine. Two months after placement of the ameroid, animals were restricted to their pens or exercise trained for 16 wk. Epicardial arteries (>500 microm ID) were isolated from the collateral-dependent LCX coronary artery distal to the occlusion and the nonoccluded left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery. Bradykinin- and ADP-mediated relaxation of LCX and LAD coronary arteries was enhanced after exercise training. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester decreased bradykinin- and ADP-mediated relaxation in LCX and LAD myocardial regions. Importantly, combined inhibition of effects of endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor with increased extracellular K(+) (20-30 mM) and nitric oxide synthase completely abolished coronary LAD and LCX relaxation to bradykinin. Our data indicate that exercise training improves endothelium-mediated relaxation of arteries isolated after chronic coronary artery occlusion, likely as a result of enhanced production of nitric oxide and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor.

Adenosine Diphosphate↗

PubMed1998

The effects of body composition changes to observed improvements in cardiopulmonary parameters after exercise training with cardiac rehabilitation.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To discriminate the effects of body fat reduction on improvements in peak aerobic capacity made following exercise training during cardiac rehabilitation. DESIGN: Observational, prospective study. SETTING: Outpatient cardiovascular health center at regional academic center. PATIENT INTERVENTIONS: Peak oxygen uptake (pkVO2), percent body fat, lean body mass (LBM), and other anthropometric measures were assessed before and after a 3-month program of cardiac rehabilitation and exercise training in 500 consecutive cardiac patients following a major coronary event. Baseline pkVO2 was corrected for LBM (pk/VO2 lean) and compared with posttraining values. RESULTS: Following exercise training, percent body fat decreased 5% from 26.2+/-8.0 to 24.8+/-7.5 (p<0.0001), and LBM increased 1% from 61.3+/-12.5 to 61.7+/-11.8 kg (p=0.02). pk/VO2 increased 16% from 16.0+/-4.1 to 18.5+/-4.8 mL/kg/min (p<0.0001), and pkVO2 lean increased 13% from 21.7+/-5.3 to 24.6+/-6.0 mL/kg/min (p<0.0001). Isolating the effects of reduction in body fat, we discern that these changes contributed to 0.3 of the 2.5 mL/kg/min increase in pkVO2 or 12% of the increase in pkVO2 observed. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in body composition, as a consequence of dietary and exercise modification, contribute to 12% of the "observed" improvement noted in weight-adjusted peak aerobic capacity following cardiac rehabilitation and exercise training. Changes in pkVO2 lean should be used by investigators to assess the singular effects of exercise conditioning alone.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1978

Exercise training and plasma catecholamines in patients with ischemic heart disease.

A 3 month program of exercise training was carried out in 10 patients with ischemic heart disease to assess the contribution of catecholamines to the training effect of improved exercise capacity and enhanced myocardial oxygen delivery. Training resulted in a significant increase in maximal treadmill exercise time (mean +/- standard error the mean 374 +/- 28 versus 567 +/- 33 seconds, P less than 0.0001). The heart rate-arterial pressure product, an index of myocardial oxygen consumption, was decreased at rest and at all levels of exercise after training. After training, the mean plasma norepinephrine level during supine rest was reduced (320 +/- 23 to 191 +/- 20 pg/ml, P less than 0.01) and plasma epinephrine values were unchanged. When these previously sedentary patients exercised on a treadmill to the maximal level attained before exercise training, the mean plasma norepinephrne and plasma epinephrine concentrations were significantly reduced. These data suggest that the beneficial adaptations of the cardiovascular system to exercise training are at least partially mediated by changes in the catecholamine response to exercise.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Delayed effects of pyridostigmine and exercise training on acetylcholinesterase and muscle tension in mouse lower extremity.

In this study, the interactive effects of pyridostigmine, a pretreatment drug against nerve agents, and exercise training on muscle tension were investigated in the mouse lower extremity anterior muscular compartment by dorsiflexion of the foot with stimulation of the peroneal nerve. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), lipid peroxidation (in terms of the end-product malondialdehyde, MDA) and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) activity in the muscle were correlated with muscle tension. Male NIH Swiss mice were divided into four groups and treated as follows: (1) sedentary control; (2) pyridostigmine (1.2 mg/kg orally) daily for the 5th and 6th weeks; (3) exercise training for 10 weeks; and (4) pyridostigmine plus exercise training for 10 weeks. Experiments on muscle tension were conducted 4 weeks after the last dose of pyridostigmine or saline and 24 h after exercise. The muscle tension was measured in right and left legs using a tension transduction device connected to a polygraph. After muscle tension recording, mice were killed, blood and triceps muscle were isolated, and plasma CPK and muscle AChE activities, and MDA were determined. There was a significant increase in the muscle tension (P<0.05) in the group treated with pyridostigmine plus exercise as compared to the control and exercise groups. The pyridostigmine plus exercise group also showed a significant reduction in AChE activity (P<0.01) and enhanced MDA (P<0.05) in the triceps muscle. These results suggest that subchronic dosages of pyridostigmine and interaction with exercise training result in the delayed effects of reduction in muscle AChE activity and enhanced muscle tension.

Acetylcholinesterase↗

PubMed1986

The effect of exercise training on insulin resistance in sedentary year old rats.

The purpose of this study was to determine if exercise training of 12-month-old Sprague-Dawley rats could reverse the resistance to insulin-induced glucose uptake that has been shown to occur in these animals. Twelve-month-old rats were trained to run 1 1/2 miles/day in motorized exercise wheel cages, and the ability of insulin to stimulate glucose uptake in these rats was compared with values observed in two groups of similar aged sedentary rats--one fed rat chow ad libitum and the other a calorie-restricted diet for 4 months. Body weight increased and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake decreased as rats fed chow ad libitum grew from 12 to 16 months of age. In contrast, 4 months of either exercise training or calorie restriction prevented weight gain and loss of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. Thus, the intensity of exercise training attained in this study did not result in an improvement in insulin action in older rats above and beyond that related to the reduction in rate of body weight gain.

Aging↗

PubMed1987

Is the response of plasma glucose and insulin to short-term exercise-training genetically determined?

Six male monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs participated in the present study which was undertaken to assess the contribution of heredity to changes in plasma glucose and insulin in response to exercise-training. This group was submitted to a vigorous ergocycle exercise program inducing a surplus in energy expenditure of 1000 kcal/day over habitual energy expenditure during 22 consecutive days. An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT, 75 g glucose) was performed before and about 16 hours after the experimental period. Fasting plasma glucose as well as its increase over basal level (delta area) during OGTT were not modified by exercise-training (p greater than 0.05), although a marked reduction in insulin was observed, both in the fasting state and during the OGTT (p less than 0.01). To assess the extent to which heredity influenced the response to the treatment, i.e. the genotype-training interaction, within and between MZ twin pairs means of squares were calculated. A significant intrapair resemblance in the response to exercise-training was observed for fasting insulin and delta insulin area/delta glucose area ratio during OGTT, but not for delta insulin area. These results provide some indications about a possible role of the genotype on the sensitivity to reduce plasma insulin in response to exercise-training. However, this hypothesis needs to be substantiated by other experimental data with control over the genotype of subjects.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

Quadriceps femoris muscle resistance to fatigue using an electrically elicited fatigue test following intense endurance exercise training.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Electrical stimulation has been used to assess skeletal muscle resistance to fatigue. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that 12 weeks of intense endurance exercise training on a bicycle ergometer would reduce the percentage of decline in quadriceps femoris muscle torque during an electrically elicited fatigue test. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Eleven nondisabled subjects performed 12 weeks of high-intensity endurance exercise training, and 6 subjects served as controls and did not exercise. Two electrically elicited fatigue tests, one with and one without prior voluntary fatiguing exercise, were administered to each subject before and after the 12-week training period. RESULTS: The percentage of decline in peak torque of the quadriceps femoris muscle over 50 electrically elicited muscle contractions did not change as a result of endurance exercise training, despite significant improvements in maximal oxygen consumption and quadriceps femoris muscle endurance. The recovery of maximal isometric torque immediately after exhausting voluntary exercise followed by electrical stimulation was significantly greater after 12 weeks of intense exercise training. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: The percentage of decline in peak torque during an electrically elicited fatigue test does not detect improvements in quadriceps femoris muscle endurance induced by endurance exercise training. The percentage of initial torque recovered immediately after fatiguing exercise, however, is improved by endurance training. [Sinacore Dr, Jacobson RB, Delitto A. Quadriceps femoris muscle resistance to fatigue using an electrically elicited fatigue test following intense endurance exercise training.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Hydration assessment during cold-weather military field training exercises.

To quantify the magnitude of dehydration and to identify predictors of dehydration by utilizing changes in total body water (TBW), 24 male Marines were studied during an 8d moderately cold-weather (1-3 degrees C) training exercise. Training consisted of approximately 12 h/d of moderately intense activity. Variables examined included body composition, TBW, and various blood and urinary parameters indicative of hydration. Dietary food and fluid records were also maintained. Body composition changes were consistently with the high energy expenditure and insufficient energy intake. Despite a decrease in TBW, significant dehydration as assessed by blood and urinary parameters did not occur over the 8d period, therefore no relationships were found between TBW and any of the clinical indicators of dehydration. The change in TBW was reflective of a decrease in lean body mass. These data suggest that during cold-weather military field exercise, despite high activity levels and a negative energy balance, body fluid balance can be maintained when particular attention is paid to fluid intake.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Comparison of two techniques of robot-aided upper limb exercise training after stroke.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether incorporating progressive resistive training into robot-aided exercise training provides incremental benefits over active-assisted robot-aided exercise for the upper limb after stroke. DESIGN: A total of 47 individuals at least 1 yr poststroke were enrolled in this 6-wk training protocol. Paretic upper limb motor abilities were evaluated using clinical measures and a robot-based assessment to determine eligibility for robot-aided progressive resistive training at study entry. Subjects capable of participating in resistance training were randomized to receive either active-assisted robot-aided exercises or robot-aided progressive resistance training. Subjects who were incapable of participating in resistance training underwent active-assisted robotic therapy and were again screened for eligibility after 3 wks of robotic therapy. Those subjects capable of participating in resistance training at 3 wks were then randomized to receive either robot-aided resistance training or to continue with robot-aided active-assisted training. RESULTS: One subject withdrew due to unrelated medical issues, and data for the remaining 46 subjects were analyzed. Subjects in all groups showed improvement in measures of motor control (mean increase in Fugl-Meyer of 3.3; 95% confidence interval, 2.2-4.4) and maximal force (mean increase in maximal force of 3.5 N, P = 0.027) over the course of robot-aided exercise training. No differences in outcome measures were observed between the resistance training groups and the matched active-assisted training groups. Subjects' ability to perform the robotic task at the time of group assignment predicted the magnitude of the gain in motor control. CONCLUSION: The incorporation of robot-aided progressive resistance exercises into a program of robot-aided exercise did not favorably or negatively affect the gains in motor control or strength associated with this training, though interpretation of these results is limited by sample size. Individuals with better motor control at baseline experienced greater increases in motor control with robotic training.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Effects of short-term exercise training on symptoms and quality of life in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: A randomised study was conducted to determine if short-term exercise training in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation (AF) might improve symptoms and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). METHODS: AF patients (64+/-7 years) were randomised to exercise training (n=15) or a 2-month control period (n=15) followed by an exercise training program (ETP). The ETP consisted of 24 training sessions with aerobic exercise and muscle strengthening. A cycle ergometer test, with recording of perceived exertion on the Borg scale, was performed. The participants completed HRQoL questionnaires, the Short-Form 36 (SF-36) and Symptom and Severity Checklist (SSCL), before and after training. Because there were no changes after two months in the control group, pooled data for all patients are presented before and after training. RESULTS: Four of the eight SF-36 scales improved significantly (p<0.05) following training: physical functioning (82+/-14 pre-ETP, 86+/-10 post-ETP), bodily pain (82+/-17 pre-ETP, 92+/-14 post-ETP), vitality (61+/-14 pre-ETP, 68+/-13 post-ETP) and role-emotional (85+/-28 pre-ETP, 94+/-20 post-ETP). The SF-36 physical component summary scale also increased from 49+/-6 pre-ETP to 52+/-6 post-ETP (p<0.05). Significant improvements were also observed for summary and specific symptom scores of the SSCL. Exercise capacity improved by 41+/-20% and perceived exertion during testing by 1.4 points after training (p<0.05 for both). CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrates a significant improvement in HRQoL, symptoms during exercise testing and exercise capacity after a short-term exercise training program in patients with chronic AF.

Aged↗

PubMed2002

Effects of exercise training on expression of endothelin-1 mRNA in the aorta of aged rats.

Aging impairs endothelial function and the vascular tone regulation, although the precise mechanism remains unclear. Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a potent vasoconstrictor peptide produced by vascular endothelial cells. Because ET-1 has a potent vasoconstrictor effect on vessels, it may be involved in the regulation of vascular tonus. We hypothesized that aging causes a decrease in ET-1 expression in aorta, and that exercise training improves the aging-induced decrease in ET-1 expression in aorta. This study was performed to examine whether gene expression of ET-1 in the aorta of rats is altered by aging and subsequent exercise training. We studied expression of ET-1 mRNA in the aortas of sedentary young rats (Sedentary young group, 4 months old), sedentary aged rats (Sedentary aged group, 23 months old), and swim trained aged rats (Training aged group, 23 months old; swimming training for 8 weeks, 5 days/week, 90 min/day). The expression of ET-1 mRNA in the aorta was analysed by real-time quantitative PCR. Body weight and resting heart rate were significantly lower in the Training aged group compared with the Sedentary aged group. These results suggest that the Training aged rats exhibited physiological effects from exercise training. The expression of ET-1 mRNA in the aorta was markedly lower in Sedentary aged group compared with the Sedentary young group, whereas it was significantly higher in Training aged group compared with the Sedentary aged group. These results show that the expression of ET-1 mRNA in the aorta is decreased by aging, and that the expression is increased by exercise training. Therefore, the present study provides a possibility that exercise training improves endothelial function through up-regulation of the aging-induced decrease in ET-1 expression in the aorta.

Aging↗