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PubMed2004

A new method for the assessment of spatial orientation and spatial anxiety in mice.

The implication of integrated functional sensory relations of the body to space in anxiety disorders is a very important issue which encourages the development of animal models, in particular, for pharmacological perspectives and for the functional assessment of the deficits induced by genetic manipulation in the mouse or the rat. A new experimental device is presented here: It is comprised of a rotating tunnel and a rotating-beam controlled by computer which can be used for multiple visuo-idiothetic and kinesthetic sensory conflict situations during active locomotor behaviour by mice. The system is linked to a digital video system, Video-Track trade mark, designed to track and record the movements of the animals. Anxious BALB/cByJ mice were compared to non-anxious C57BL/6J mice and were seen to display highly disturbed locomotor behaviour in a sensory conflict situation. The model highlights the advantages of video-digital analysis for animal behavioural sciences.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor alpha-immunoreactivity in the monkey central nervous system.

Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) sustains the viability and phenotypic expression of a variety of neuronal populations in the central nervous system. Cranial and spinal motor neurons are particularly sensitive to the trophic effects of CNTF, and clinical trials are underway testing the potential therapeutic value of this trophic factor in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Yet, the distribution of the alpha subunit of the receptor for ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTFR alpha), which is essential for the trophic effects of CNTF to occur, is unknown in any primate species. Towards this end, the present study used a polyclonal antibody directed against CNTFR alpha to evaluate the distribution of CNTFR alpha-immunoreactive (-ir) cells within the brain and spinal cord of Cebus apella monkeys. CNTFR alpha-ir was found exclusively within neurons. In the anterior horn of the spinal cord, virtually all motor neurons were darkly immunoreactive for CNTFR alpha. A similar pattern of CNTFR alpha-ir was seen within all cranial motor nuclei with general somatic efferent function (III, IV, motor V, VI, VII, and XII cranial nerves). CNTFR alpha-ir was also seen in other regions involved with motor function including the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, the substantia nigra pars compacta, red nucleus, dorsal motor nucleus of X cranial nerve, and giant neurons of sensory motor neocortex. A few CNTFR alpha-ir neurons were seen within the globus pallidus with concomitant terminal-like staining within the subthalamic nucleus. Autonomic regions such as the mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve and the interomedial lateral cell column of the thoracic spinal cord also contained CNTFR alpha-ir neurons. Finally, the hippocampus displayed dense CNTFR alpha-ir within the pyramidal cell layer of the hippocampal formation and the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus. The dense expression of this CNTFR alpha protein within regions subserving motor, autonomic, and sensory functions suggests that CNTFR alpha supports many central nervous system regions with diverse functions.

Animals↗

PubMed1984

Sensory neural mechanisms in contraction of the rabbit isolated sphincter pupillae: analysis of the responses to capsaicin and electrical field stimulation.

Electrical field stimulation produced contractions of the rabbit isolated iris sphincter muscle which were completely blocked by tetrodotoxin (10(-6) M). Low frequency (0.16-5 Hz) responses were atropine-resistant, but were prevented by sensory (trigeminal) denervation, and were considered to be owing to antidromic stimulation of sensory nerves. Higher frequency (10-40 Hz) responses were apparently unaffected by atropine alone (3 X 10(-7) M) and unaltered by sensory denervation, but were completely blocked by a combination of both. Thus at higher frequencies both cholinergic and sensory nerves would seem to be activated. Capsaicin-induced contraction of the isolated iris sphincter muscle, previously shown to be dependent upon an intact and functional sensory nerve supply, was not suppressed by atropine (3 X 10(-7) M) or by tetrodotoxin (10-6 M). Capsaicin therefore, although acting via sensory nerves, does not seem to require axonal conduction or Na+ flux to produce a response. This pain-producing substance may therefore act directly on sensory elements to release a mediator without requiring excitation of adjacent fibres by axon reflex. Contractile responses to capsaicin and also to low-frequency electrical stimulation were partially inhibited by morphine (5 X 10(-5) M), which in contrast had no effect on responses to carbachol or to substance P. Thus, at the peripheral as at the central endings of these bipolar primary afferent fibres, morphine may inhibit the release of the putative mediator.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

[The first transplantation of a hand in humans. Early results].

The first hand allograft was performed on September 23, 1998. The right distal forearm and hand of a brain dead donor was transplanted to a 48 year old recipient who had undergone a traumatic amputation of the distal third of his right forearm. The donor's arm was irrigated with organ preservation solution (UW) and transported to Lyon in a cool container. Two teams simultaneously dissected the donor's limb and the recipient's stump to identify anatomical structures. Transplantation involved bone fixation, arterial and venous anastomoses, nerve sutures, joining of the muscles and tendons, and skin closure. Immunosuppression consisted of anti-lymphocyte, polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, tacrolimus, mycophenolic acid, and prednisone. Mild clinical and histological signs of rejection occurred at week 9 after surgery. They disappeared with adjustments of the immunosuppressant doses. Seven months after surgery the patient was in good general condition. Intensive physiotherapy led to satisfactory progress of motor function. Sensory progress is excellent, reaching the fingertips. A longer follow-up is necessary to appreciate the final result. In the absence of further rejection, the functional prognosis of the graft should be similar to that reported after successful autoreconstruction.

Adenosine↗

PubMed2005

Gastroesophageal reflux in familial dysautonomia: correlation with crisis frequency and sensory dysfunction.

OBJECTIVES: Familial dysautonomia (FD), a genetic disorder resulting in sensory and autonomic nervous system dysfunction, is associated with a high frequency of gastroesophageal reflux (GER). In this study the authors attempted to determine if GER prevalence correlated with dysautonomic crisis frequency and small fiber sensory dysfunction. METHODS: Of an initial population of 252 FD patients who had survived past their seventh year and were alive during the year of study from June 1, 2001 to June 1, 2002, 174 (69.0%) had sufficient data in their patient files to be included in this retrospective analysis. Subjects were stratified into three groups: those with no GER, those medically treated for GER and those surgically treated for GER with fundoplication. Data were obtained regarding frequency and severity of dysautonomic crises and sensory function including pain sensation, cold and warm thresholds and vibration perception. RESULTS: There were no significant differences among the three groups regarding age or severity of sensory dysfunction. However, dysautonomic crises were significantly more frequent in FD patients who were presumed to have more intractable GER, as they had required fundoplication (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The data confirm the high incidence of GER in the FD population and demonstrate that GER is independent of severity of sensory dysfunction. In addition, the authors demonstrate that fundoplication does not alleviate the central autonomic cause of retching, the dysautonomic crisis.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

The assessment of neurobehavioral toxicity: SGOMSEC joint report.

Exposure to neurobehavioral toxicants is a problem of international scope. Although many different procedures are available for the assessment of human behavioral function, performance tests are displacing traditional diagnostic tests for ascertaining the consequences of exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. Performance testing includes variables such as attention and concentration, sensory function, motor control, spatial relations, visuomotor coordination, memory, and affect. Special tests have also been devised for evaluating child development. One of the salient needs in these efforts is the construction of databases allowing access to normative data.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Reconstructive surgery for permanent palsy of the median nerve.

Permanent palsies of the median nerve cause severe impairment of hand functions. This chapter reviews both the various surgical methods able to restore functions and complex mechanisms necessary for brain adaptation to the new functions of the cortical areas. Different methods of reconstructive surgery, according to both the severity of palsy and patients' needs, are presented. The contemporary restoration of sensory function of the paralysed digits is recommended, as sensation is a prerequisite for good motor function. The various mechanisms and methods useful to obtain good gliding and strength of the transferred tendons are stressed. Reconstructive surgery for permanent palsy of the median nerve can supply improved function, provided that all the recommendations for a meticulous balance of the number of functions to be restored and available motors to be transferred, as well as of their strength and course, are addressed.

Chronic Disease↗

PubMed1988

A review of experimental methods measuring peripheral nerve regeneration in animals.

We have reviewed the morphologic, electrophysiologic, biochemical, and functional methods of evaluating PN regeneration in animal models. There are a large number of anatomic techniques that can provide clear insights into the processes of peripheral nerve regeneration. Since many of these are costly in terms of labor, careful selection of the technique appropriate for the question asked is important. Two of the more important questions are: 1) What are the neurotrophic factors produced by the distal segment that attract the growing axon tip? and 2) What are the components of the basal lamina that facilitate the directed growth of the axons? To answer these questions, whole mount preparations provide the means to economically evaluate the result of experimental manipulation of the environment. Automated nerve fiber counts will be increasingly used to help interpret electrophysiologic studies. Quantitative as well as descriptive ultrastructural analyses will continue to provide valuable data that will be needed in the interpretation of biochemical and histochemical studies. Immunohistochemical probes are sure to become more important as the range of their specificities broadens. With the diversity of anatomic methods available and their capacity to help us visualize the processes occurring during nerve regeneration they will remain a key tool in these studies. Electrophysiologic methods that integrate the CAP and correlate it with the number of functioning NF are most useful. Functional methods are beginning to become more objective and quantitative. The most precise measurements are muscle weight and the isometric response of muscle to tetanic contraction. Sensory function has now been measured objectively by Horch. Single methods of measuring PN regeneration give only limited data, but by combining methods a better understanding of PN regeneration is possible. While understanding the limitations of each method and technique, multi-parameter animal models may provide data most helpful clinically. However, because of great species variability in the reparative response, caution must be given not to extrapolate too much from animal studies. We urge investigators to use the most objective methods available to measure nerve regeneration. Recognizing these limitations, however, animal studies will continue to provide significant insights into PN regeneration and should point the way to improved clinical practice.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Application of evoked potentials to the prediction of discharge status in minimally responsive patients: a pilot study.

Evoked potentials (EPs) have been shown to have useful prognostic value during the acute phase of traumatic and anoxic coma. We have hypothesized that EPs obtained in the subacute phase can be used to assess prognosis for functional recovery in minimally responsive patients with diffuse brain damage due to either brain trauma or anoxia. This pilot study correlated graded brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) and upper extremity somatosensory evoked potentials (UESSEPs) with outcome grade based on the discharge Disability Rating Scale (DRS) score of 33 patients admitted to a responsiveness assessment program of a brain injury rehabilitation unit with an initial DRS score of 22 or greater. Results indicated a significant correlation with outcome grade for both the BAEP grade (P < .02) and the UESSEP grade (P < .02). The BAEP had a higher sensitivity and lower specificity, as false-positive exceeded false-negative predictions. The UESSEP tended to predict outcome more accurately and with a balanced number of false-positive and false-negative predictions. EPs were also found to be useful for detecting occult impairment of sensory function. This pilot study demonstrates that EPs performed near the time of admission to the rehabilitation unit can be useful in guiding the rehabilitation management of the minimally responsive patient by helping to predict functional recovery and to detect occult impairment of sensory systems.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Upper and lower gastrointestinal motor and sensory dysfunction after human spinal cord injury.

This chapter describes the results of investigations of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract in subjects with complete and incomplete spinal cord injury. In one study, gastric emptying was investigated and found delayed. The delay was tentatively attributed to a colo-gastric inhibitory reflex triggered by inappropriate colonic emptying. In another study, anorectal motor and sensory functions were measured. Decreased tone of the internal anal sphincter, exaggerated recto-anal reflexes following rectal distension and spontaneous high-amplitude rectal contractions at low distension volumes were among the findings of the study. Some of the subjects, classified as having a complete injury according to usual clinical criteria (American Spinal Injury Association, ASIA), reported sensation of distension of the rectum. This raises the issue of the need for better methods for the clinical assessment of sensory transmission in the spinal cord. Promising results obtained with functional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain during rectal stimulation in a small group of paraplegics, with complete injuries by ASIA criteria, showed evidence of activation of several brain regions.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Intraoperative applications of the H-reflex and F-response: a tutorial.

Traditional intraoperative monitoring of spinal cord function involves the use of three techniques: 1. Orthodromic ascending somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) and 2. antIDromic descending neurogenic somatosensory evoked potentials (DNSSEPs) monitor long-tract sensory function. SSEPs and DNSSEPs do not monitor interneuronal gray matter function. 3. Transcranial motor evoked potentials (TMEPs) monitor descending long-tract motor function and measure interneuronal gray matter function by activating motor neurons. TMEPs activate from 4-5% of the motor neuron pool. When using TMEPs 95-96% of the motor spinal cord systems activating the motor neurons are not monitored. Our ability to interact with our environment involves not only intact sensation and strength, but also complex coordinated motor behavior. Complex coordinated motor behavior is controlled by groups of electrically-coupled spinal cord central pattern generators (CPGs). The components of CPGs are: descending and propriospinal systems, peripheral input, and segmental interneurons. The point-of-control is the level of excitation of interneurons, which is determined by the integrated activity of the other components. Spinal cord injury (SCI) changes segmental reflex gain by uncoupling these components. Changes in gain are detected by recordings from muscles. SSEPs, DNSSEPs and TMEPs provIDe limited information about the status of CPGs. H-reflexes measure the function of from 20-100% of the motor neuron pool. F-responses measure the function of from 1-5% of the motor neuron pool. H-reflexes and F-responses provIDe information about the degree of coupling between CPG components. Recording H-reflexes and F-responses together with SSEPs and TMEPs not only monitors spinal cord long-tract function, but also provIDes a multiple-systems approach that monitors those spinal cord systems that are responsible for the control of complex coordinated motor behavior. The objective of this paper is to describe how H-reflexes and F-responses can be used to monitor complex coordinated motor behavior.

Diagnostic Techniques, Neurological↗

PubMed1995

Psychomotor functions in developing rats: ontogenetic approach to structure-function relationships.

The functional development of the central nervous system (CNS) in the rat was studied from the 10th to the 45th postnatal day, through the ontogeny of psychomotor and sensory functions, by a battery of behavioral tests. The ontogenetic development of 10 different functions was described. The results showed that novelty-induced functions matured progressively in an adult-like pattern of functioning in the 3rd postnatal week. Indeed, exploratory activity was low at the 10th day, increased significantly to reach highest values from 20th to 30th postnatal day, then declined at the 45th postnatal day. No habituation was exhibited by 10- and 15-day-old rats; it appeared at the age of 20 days. Emotional reactivity induced by the novelty of surroundings clearly appeared from the 20th postnatal day, when the features of adult animal were reached. It appeared also that reflex and automatic motor functions came to maturity by the age of 3 wk, while voluntary motor functions continued to improve until the 30th day. Thus, the latency of the hind paw lifting reflex occurrence significantly decreased from the 10th to the 20th postnatal day, when the most improved values were reached. The wire-grasping times increased from the 10th to the 25th postnatal day in an exponential fashion. Locomotor activity developed significantly from the 10th to the 15th day, when the mature locomotion pattern was exhibited. The coordination of complex movements and motor initiative appeared only after the 20th postnatal day. The latencies of execution of crawling along the wire and of leap onto the ground decreased significantly from the 20th to the 45th day. These studies reveal the presence of the caudal to rostral sequence of CNS development, predicting a spatio-temporal functional maturation of nuclei and centers in the rat's CNS. The building of the time-sequence of regional maturation of the brain integrated activities was attempted.

Aging↗

PubMed1982

Reconstructive procedures for extremities with peripheral nerve defects.

Surgeons who undertake reconstruction of extremities with peripheral nerve loss should be experienced enough to select the appropriate procedures for the individual patient. To gain adequate strength for a specific function, a new muscle-tendon unit usually is added to the power-train rather than redistribute muscles that have related function. Precise sensibility required precise motion, which is very difficult to achieve following peripheral nerve loss. The anticipated result should be a balanced simplification of motor and sensory function.

Arm Injuries↗

PubMed1984

[Sensory properties of neurons of a nonspecific brain structure--the caudate nucleus].

The paper deals with sensory function of single neurons in nonspecific high-level brain structures. Certain aspects of the problem are shown to be complex and disputable. The choice of the research object, nucleus caudatus, is substantiated. Results of experiments with alert cats are presented. Extracellularly recorded neuronal responses to various light stimuli are compared. Local light stimuli, especially under a definite spatial distribution of illuminated sites in the visual field, are found to be more advantageous in neuron activation than diffuse light. Difficulties in interpretation of the data obtained are discussed in connection with fluctuation of background activity and recorded responses under multiple application of the stimuli. An attempt is made to relate sensory properties of the neostriatum to the regulatory efferent function of this structure.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Obstetric brachial plexus injuries: assessment protocol and functional outcome at age 5 years.

One hundred and five children with the whole spectrum of obstetric brachial plexus (OBP) injuries, from severe to full recovery, were examined at the age of 5 years with regard to motor and sensory functions as well as to use of the affected limb. Since root involvement level does not fully reflect the degree of disability, a classification based on range of motion and grip-strength was formulated and found to correspond well with functional abilities. The results from this study indicate that the eventual outcome in upper-plexus lesions is more complex than is commonly believed. Hand function is affected due to the effect of limited shoulder movements on hand positioning. Grip strength was also reduced in many of these children. All the children with total-plexus lesions had diminished grip strength and half of them had impaired tactile sensibility. In most children with total-plexus lesions, performance of activities in daily life was affected as were bimanual activities requiring use of the involved limb. Hand preference was affected in children with a right-sided injury. From a clinical perspective, as well as for research, it is important to describe OBP injuries not only in terms of impairment but also of disability.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1987

A twitch tension method to assess motor nerve function in rat.

A simple and quantitative method is described which assesses the motor function of the rat tibial nerve by recording the twitch tension developed by the digital flexors. Stimulating electrodes are placed at the proximal end of the sciatic nerve of anesthetized rats, and the associated foot is immobilized on a sliding stage. The middle digit is connected via a thread to a force-displacement transducer and the sciatic nerve is stimulated supramaximally. The resulting twitch tension curve is recorded on an oscilloscope and/or signal averager. Measurement of the area and amplitude of the twitch tension curve provides an estimate of the recovery of motor function. The method is illustrated by examining the return of motor function following either sciatic nerve crush, or sciatic transection and repair. The results obtained are compared with other assessments of sciatic nerve function, such as the toe-spreading reflex and the analysis of walking tracks. The results from the twitch tension method are more sensitive, unaffected by changes in sensory function, and less prone to variation than the other assessments.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Retrograde tracing of zinc-enriched (ZEN) neuronal somata in rat spinal cord.

The zinc selenide autometallographic (ZnSeAMG) technique for tracing the retrograde axonal transport of zinc ions in zinc-enriched (ZEN) neurons was used to map the distribution of ZEN neuronal somata in rat spinal cord. After a local injection of sodium selenide into the dorsal or ventral horn, ZnSeAMG-labeled ZEN neurons appeared in Rexed's laminae V, VII and X while laminae I and II were void. A few scattered ZEN somata were observed in the remaining laminae. The labeled neurons differed in shape and size, and the relatively high level of labeled somata around the injection site suggests that many ZEN neurons have relatively short axons or boutons en passage close to the neuronal origin. Ultrastructurally, the retrogradely transported zinc selenide clusters were found in the lysosomes of ZEN somata and proximal dendrites. Electron microscopic studies also revealed two different kinds of ZEN terminals: (1) terminals with flat synaptic vesicles making symmetric synaptic contacts; and (2) terminals with round vesicles making asymmetric synaptic contacts. The present study suggests the existence of propriospinal systems of ZEN neurons comprising both segmental and intersegmental ZEN connections and having either inhibitory or excitatory ZEN terminals. The ZEN neurons seem to form a vast network of terminals located primarily in the gray matter, but also contacting dendrites radiating into the white matter. Important functions of this rather massive system of ZEN terminals can not be deduced from our present knowledge, but the systems appear to be involved in both motor and sensory functions.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

A quantitative evaluation of sensory dysfunction in lumbosacral radiculopathy.

A quantitative evaluation of sensory disturbance of the foot was attempted in 94 cases of lumbosacral radiculopathy using the biothesiometer, the Semmes-Weinstein esthesiometer, light touch, tuning fork, and dermatomal somatosensory evoked potentials. Dermatomal somatosensory evoked potentials was the most sensitive of these tests, and reflected the duration of the lumbosacral radiculopathy better than the biothesiometer and the Semmes-Weinstein esthesiometer. The biothesiometer and Semmes-Weinstein esthesiometer reflected the clinical severity of sensory dysfunctions, the extent of numbness, and the immediate change in sensory function better than the dermatomal somatosensory evoked potentials. It is important to understand the characteristics of each test and to choose informative tests for clinical use. Grades of sensory disturbance in patients with lumbosacral radiculopathy were classified into three categories in combination with the findings of dermatomal somatosensory evoked potentials and the values recorded with the biothesiometer and Semmes-Weinstein esthesiometer.

Adult↗