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PubMed1995

Molecular analysis of elastic properties of the stratum corneum by solid-state 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

To elucidate the precise molecular mechanisms underlying stratum corneum (SC) elasticity, we investigated the molecular dynamics of chemical residues within keratin fibers of human plantar SC under various conditions by cross polarization/magic angle spinning 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance. The intensities of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra responsible for amide carbonyl, C alpha methine, and side-chain aliphatic carbons in the intact SC decreased markedly with increasing water content of up to 30% in dry SC, and then remained constant at greater than 30%. Lipid extraction of intact SC with acetone/ether (1:1) did not induce any significant change in the nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum, whereas additional treatment with water, which released natural moisturizing factors (mainly amino acids), caused the SC to lose elasticity. The observed decrease in elasticity of the SC recovered after treatment with basic and neutral amino acids, but not after treatment with acidic amino acid. With the latter treatment, movement of amino acid molecules was significantly disturbed, suggesting a strong interaction with keratin fibers. Parallel studies of the complex elastic modulus of a pig SC sheet with a rheovibron also demonstrated that removal of natural moisturizing factor reduced the elasticity of the SC; this effect was also reversed by the application of basic and neutral amino acids, but not by the application of acidic amino acid. These findings suggest that structural keratin proteins, mainly consisting of 10-nm filaments, acquire their elasticity with the help of hydrated natural moisturizing factor via the reduction of intermolecular forces, probably through nonhelical regions between keratin fibers.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed1998

Differences in the mechanical properties of the rat carotid artery in vivo, in situ, and in vitro.

The elastic properties of carotid arteries of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and normotensive controls (Wistar-Kyoto rats [WKY]) were examined in vivo, in situ, and in vitro. The changes of internal diameter were measured with a high-resolution A-mode echo-tracking device simultaneously with the intra-arterial pressure at the carotid. The internal diameter at mean arterial blood pressure (MBP) was substantially smaller in vitro than in vivo in SHR (-33.8%) and WKY (-48.3%). The arterial distensibility was lower in vitro in all arteries compared with in vivo conditions (SHR, -30.1%; WKY, -60.4%; at MBP) despite a reduced incremental elastic modulus in vitro (SHR, -56.9%; WKY, -45.1%; at MBP). However, the in vitro and in vivo measurements show consistent elastic behavior of the carotid arteries between both strains of rats. Carotid arteries from WKY were also examined in situ. Although no significant reduction in internal diameter could be observed in situ, distensibility was dramatically decreased (-87% at MBP). These results emphasize the importance of considering the original vascular geometry when determining elastic properties of arteries. We conclude that experimental conditions are likely to be a critical determinant for the assessment of the mechanical properties of conduit vessels.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

The cancellous bone multiscale morphology-elasticity relationship.

The cancellous bone effective properties relations are analysed on multiscale across two aspects; properties of representative volume element on micro scale and statistical measure of trabecular trajectory orientation on mesoscale. Anisotropy of the microstructure is described across fabric tensor measure with trajectory orientation tensor as bridging scale connection. The scatter measured data (elastic modulus, trajectory orientation, apparent density) from compression test are fitted by stochastic interpolation procedure. The engineering constants of the elasticity tensor are estimated by last square fitt procedure in multidimensional space by Nelder-Mead simplex. The multiaxial failure surface in strain space is constructed and interpolated by modified super-ellipsoid.

Anisotropy↗

PubMed1995

Effect of maturation and aging on material and ultrasonographic properties of equine superficial digital flexor tendon.

Results of studies in human beings and other species have indicated that aging significantly influences the strength, modulus of elasticity, and energy storage ability of tendon. We wanted to determine the effects of aging on the material and ultrasonographic properties of equine superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendon. Ultrasonographic measurements of left forelimb SDF tendon cross-sectional area and mean echogenicity were made in 23 standing horses ranging in age from 2 to 23 years. All horses had not been in work for a minimum of 6 months prior to the study. After euthanasia, left forelimb bone-muscle-tendon-bone specimens were mounted in a materials testing system. The SDF tendon was cyclically loaded sinusoidally 100 times at 0.5 Hz from 1.5 to 5.0% strain, then was submitted to 10-minute creep-and-stress relaxation tests. Modulus of elasticity, load at 3% strain, and creep-and-stress relaxation were determined for each specimen. A significant positive correlation was found between elastic modulus and age. Correlation was not found between age and SDF tendon cross-sectional area or mean echogenicity. When 2-year-old horses were compared with older horses, the latter had tendons with a significantly (P = 0.007) greater modulus of elasticity. The authors conclude that increasing age through maturity is associated with a corresponding increase in equine SDF tendon elastic modulus.

Aging↗

PubMed1994

Moduli of rupture of layered dental ceramics.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the moduli of rupture of layered beams made of strong core materials veneered with weaker conventional feldspathic porcelain. METHODS: A three-point flexural test, and formulae derived especially for this purpose were used. Two systems were investigated. The first consisted of Vitadur N (Vita Zahnfabrik), a conventional feldspathic porcelain; and Dicor MGC (L.D. Caulk), a machinable glass ceramic. The second consisted of Vitadur N and In-Ceram (Vita Zahnfabrik), a strong reinforced aluminous porcelain. RESULTS: Two-way ANOVA and Tukey tests were used to evaluate the effect of numerous factors on the modulus of rupture. The results indicated that the material forming the tensile surface, the material forming the compressive surface and their interaction had a highly significant effect on modulus of rupture (p < 0.05). The effect of the material forming the tensile surface on modulus of rupture was of much greater magnitude than that of the compressive surface. Theoretical curves describing effects of the layers' elastic moduli and thickness on the force-bearing capacity of model beams were plotted. These indicated that for a wide range of thickness ratios and for a wide variety of elastic modulus ratios, the tensile material dominates the force-bearing capacity of layered beams except when a very much lower modulus material forms the compressive layer. SIGNIFICANCE: Layered prostheses made of strong cores veneered with weaker feldspathic porcelain may be prone to failure when the feldspathic surfaces are subjected to tensile force.

Aluminum Oxide↗

PubMed2000

Polymer-based composite hip prostheses.

A composite hip prosthesis (CHP) made from poly(ether-imide) reinforced with carbon and glass fibres was manufactured and characterized. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of fibre organization on the mechanical properties of the composite femoral implant and compare with the bone. A stacking sequence of drop-off plies of carbon/glass fibres reinforcing poly(ether-imide) (PEI) constitutes a symmetrical and balanced CHP. The hip was manufactured according to the finite element modelling (FEM) design and using the compression moulding and water-jet technologies. The measured stress-strain data according to tensile, flexural and torsional tests showed agreement with the numerical calculation. Young's modulus and the strength in tension are uniform along the stem axis (40 GPa and 600 MPa, respectively) while the elastic modulus in bending varies from 10 to 60 GPa in the tip-head direction. The composite stem showed a linear load-displacement relation up to 4500 N without breaking. Mechanical behaviour of the CHP is compared to that of a canine femur. Comparison with metal prostheses has also been undertaken. CHPs control stress-strain distributions, and hence the mechanical signals to bone, through a material-structure design.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Oxygen plasma modification of polyurethane membranes.

Polyurethane membranes were prepared under nitrogen atmosphere by using various proportions of toluene diisocyanates (TDI) and polypropylene-ethylene glycol (P) with addition of no other ingredients such as catalysts, initiator or solvent in order to achieve medical purity. Effects of composition on mechanical properties were examined. In general, modulus and UTS values demonstrated an increase and PSBR demonstrated a decrease as the TDI/Polyol ratio of the polymer increased. Elastic modulus, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and per cent strain before rupture (PSBR) values were found to be in the range of 1.4-5.4 MPa, 0.9-1.9 MPa, and 60.4-99.7%, respectively. Surfaces of the membranes were modified by oxygen plasma applying glow-discharge technique and the effect of applied plasma power (10 W or 100 W, 15 min) on surface hydrophilicity and on the attachment of Vero cells were studied. Water contact angle values of the plasma modified surfaces varied between 67 degrees and 46 degrees, demonstrating a decrease as the applied plasma power was increased. The unmodified material had 42-45 cells attached per cm(2). It was observed that as the applied power increased the number of attached cells first increased (60-70 cells/cm(2) at 10 W) and then decreased (27-40 cells/cm(2) at 100 W). These demonstrated that surface properties of polyurethanes can be modified by plasma-glow discharge technique to achieve the optimum levels of cell attachment.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2000

The elasticity and failure of fluid-filled cellular solids: theory and experiment.

We extend and apply theories of filled foam elasticity and failure to recently available data on foods. The predictions of elastic modulus and failure mode dependence on internal pressure and on wall integrity are borne out by photographic evidence of distortion and failure under compressive loading and under the localized stress applied by a knife blade, and by mechanical data on vegetables differing only in their turgor pressure. We calculate the dry modulus of plate-like cellular solids and the cross over between dry-like and fully fluid-filled elastic response. The bulk elastic properties of limp and aging cellular solids are calculated for model systems and compared with our mechanical data, which also show two regimes of response. The mechanics of an aged, limp beam is calculated, thus offering a practical procedure for comparing experiment and theory. This investigation also thereby offers explanations of the connection between turgor pressure and crispness and limpness of cellular materials.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗

PubMed1990

Tissue response to mechanical vibrations for "sonoelasticity imaging".

The goal of "sonoelasticity imaging" is to differentiate between normal soft tissues and hard lesions. This is done by measuring and then displaying the ultrasound Doppler spectrum of regions within tissues which are mechanically forced with low frequency (20-1000 Hz) vibrations. The resolution and sensitivity of the technique ultimately rest on the spatial resolution of ultrasound Doppler detection, the low frequency mechanical properties of tissues, and the vibration response of layered, inhomogeneous regions with hard tumor inclusions and complicated boundary conditions set by the presence of skin, bones and other regions. An initial investigation has measured some tissue stiffness parameters, and applied these in a NASTRAN finite element analysis to simulate a prostate tumor in the pelvic cavity. The measurements show a wide separation between the elastic modulus of tumors and soft tissues such as muscle and prostate. NASTRAN analyses show the ability to delineate regions of different elasticity based on the pattern of vibration amplitudes. The ability to change vibration frequency within the 100-300 Hz band seems particularly helpful in simulations and experiments which visualize small stiff inclusions in tissues. Preliminary results support the postulate that sonoelasticity imaging can provide useful information concerning tissue properties that are not otherwise obtainable.

Computer Simulation↗

PubMed2003

Localized harmonic motion imaging: theory, simulations and experiments.

Several techniques have been developed in an effort to estimate mechanical properties of tissues. These techniques typically estimate static or harmonic motion resulting from an externally or internally applied mechanical stimulus. In this paper, we discuss the advantages of utilizing a new technique that performs radiofrequency (RF) signal tracking to estimate the localized oscillatory motion resulting from the harmonic radiation force produced by two focused ultrasound (US) transducer elements with overlapping beams oscillating at distinct frequencies. Finite-element and Monte-Carlo simulations were performed to characterize the range of oscillatory displacements produced by a harmonic radiation force. In the experimental verification, three transducers were used: two single-element focused transducers and one lead zirconate-titanate (PZT) composite 16-element probe. Four agar gels were utilized to determine the effect of stiffness on the motion amplitude. Estimates of the displacement relative to the initial position (i.e., at the onset of the application of the radiation force) were obtained during the application of the radiation force that oscillated at frequencies ranging between 200 Hz and 800 Hz. In the simulations, the estimated oscillatory displacement spanned from -800 to 600 microm and the frequencies of excitation could easily be estimated from the temporal variation of the displacement. In addition, a frequency upshift (on the order of tens of Hz) was estimated with stiffness increase. Furthermore, an exponential decrease of the displacement amplitude with stiffness was observed at all frequencies investigated. An M-mode version to depict both the spatial and temporal variations of the locally induced displacement was used. In experiments with gels of different stiffness, the resulting amplitude of the harmonic displacement estimated oscillated at the same frequencies and ranged from -300 to 250 microm. An exponential decrease of the displacement amplitude with the gel stiffness was also observed. In tissue experiments, the results showed that the method is feasible in tissues and that focused US surgery (FUS) ablation can be detected. These preliminary results demonstrate the feasibility of imaging localized harmonic motion as induced by an oscillatory US radiation force. Due to the highly localized and harmonic nature of the estimated response, this technique may be proven to be highly suitable for simple and accurate estimation of the elastic modulus variation in tissues due to disease.

Agar↗

PubMed2003

Effect of fiber orientation and strain rate on the nonlinear uniaxial tensile material properties of tendon.

Tendons are exposed to complex loading scenarios that can only be quantified by mathematical models, requiring a full knowledge of tendon mechanical properties. This study measured the anisotropic, nonlinear, elastic material properties of tendon. Previous studies have primarily used constant strain-rate tensile tests to determine elastic modulus in the fiber direction. Data for Poisson's ratio aligned with the fiber direction and all material properties transverse to the fiber direction are sparse. Additionally, it is not known whether quasi-static constant strain-rate tests represent equilibrium elastic tissue behavior. Incremental stress-relaxation and constant strain-rate tensile tests were performed on sheep flexor tendon samples aligned with the tendon fiber direction or transverse to the fiber direction to determine the anisotropic properties of toe-region modulus (E0), linear-region modulus (E), and Poisson's ratio (v). Among the modulus values calculated, only fiber-aligned linear-region modulus (E1) was found to be strain-rate dependent. The E1 calculated from the constant strain-rate tests were significantly greater than the value calculated from incremental stress-relaxation testing. Fiber-aligned toe-region modulus (E(1)0 = 10.5 +/- 4.7 MPa) and linear-region modulus (E1 = 34.0 +/- 15.5 MPa) were consistently 2 orders of magnitude greater than transverse moduli (E(2)0 = 0.055 +/- 0.044 MPa, E2 = 0.157 +/- 0.154 MPa). Poisson's ratio values were not found to be rate-dependent in either the fiber-aligned (v12 = 2.98 +/- 2.59, n = 24) or transverse (v21 = 0.488 +/- 0.653, n = 22) directions, and average Poisson's ratio values in the fiber-aligned direction were six times greater than in the transverse direction. The lack of strain-rate dependence of transverse properties demonstrates that slow constant strain-rate tests represent elastic properties in the transverse direction. However, the strain-rate dependence demonstrated by the fiber-aligned linear-region modulus suggests that incremental stress-relaxation tests are necessary to determine the equilibrium elastic properties of tendon, and may be more appropriate for determining the properties to be used in elastic mathematical models.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1995

Direct measurement for elasticity of myosin head.

During muscle contraction, chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis is converted to the relative sliding movement of actin and myosin filaments. In order to elucidate the molecular mechanism of sliding-force generation, it is a crucial clue to know an elastic modulus of myosin. Here, we report direct measurements of Young's modulus of myosin head (myosin subfragment-1) isolated from rabbit skeletal muscle, using a surface forces apparatus. Our results show that the elasticity of myosin subfragment-1 has direction and is about 0.3 GPa along the long axis during ATP hydrolysis. When the bow-shaped subfragment-1 is modelled as an elastic rod, the stiffness and the bending fluctuations of subfragment-1 are calculated to be 3-7 pN/nm and about 1 nm, respectively. These results strongly support a model of multiple power strokes rather than the conventional tilting-crossbridge model.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗

PubMed1992

The influence of iron deficiency on erythrocyte deformability.

The influence of iron deficiency on erythrocyte deformability is controversial. The present study was designed to analyse cell deformability in 14 patients with iron deficiency and controls in a comprehensive way by three different methods, namely erythrocyte filtration, erythrocyte elongation, and measurement of membrane elasticity. Suspensions of washed erythrocytes (haematocrit 0.10) free of leucocytes were used. Erythrocyte deformability measured by filtration was increased by iron deficiency: The relative filtration resistance of a cell in a 3 microns pore was 26.5 +/- 6.9 and 75.8 +/- 23.8 in iron deficiency and controls, respectively (P less than 0.0001). In 5 microns pores the values were 2.80 +/- 1.23 and 3.46 +/- 0.51 (not significant); when the red cell number/volume was adjusted to that in control samples, the value for iron deficiency became significantly lower than in controls (2.32 +/- 0.60, P less than 0.0001). Erythrocyte elongation by centrifugation was unaffected (ratio length/width 1.66 +/- 0.11 and 1.60 +/- 0.10 in iron deficiency and controls, respectively). Membrane elasticity, as assessed by a filter aspiration technique, was also unchanged (membrane elastic modulus 3.94 +/- 0.31 and 3.94 +/- 0.37 x 10(-3) dyn/cm, respectively). It is concluded that iron deficiency does not affect erythrocyte membrane elasticity and that the deformability of whole cells is not impaired, but improved under certain conditions such as the passage of 3 microns pores because of microcytosis with preserved surface/volume ratio. These results are in contrast to earlier studies and they have pathophysiological and clinical implications.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Measurement of elastic nonlinearity of soft solid with transient elastography.

Transient elastography is a powerful tool to measure the speed of low-frequency shear waves in soft tissues and thus to determine the second-order elastic modulus mu (or the Young's modulus E). In this paper, it is shown how transient elastography can also achieve the measurement of the nonlinear third-order elastic moduli of an Agar-gelatin-based phantom. This method requires speed measurements of polarized elastic waves measured in a statically stressed isotropic medium. A static uniaxial stress induces a hexagonal anisotropy (transverse isotropy) in solids. In the special case of uniaxially stressed isotropic media, the anisotropy is not caused by linear elastic coefficients but by the third-order nonlinear elastic constants, and the medium recovers its isotropic properties as soon as the uniaxial stress disappears. It has already been shown how transient elastography can measure the elastic (second-order) moduli in a media with transverse isotropy such as muscles. Consequently this method, based on the measurement of the speed variations of a low-frequency (50-Hz) polarized shear strain waves as a function of the applied stress, allows one to measure the Landau moduli A, B, C that completely describe the third-order nonlinearity. The several orders of magnitude found among these three constants can be justified from the theoretical expression of the internal energy.

Elasticity↗

PubMed2004

Synthesis of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) containing monomers and their co-polymerization with PEG-diacrylate to form hydrogels.

L-3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) is an unusual amino acid found in mussel adhesive proteins (MAPs) that is believed to lend adhesive characteristics to these proteins. Most previous efforts to incorporate DOPA into hydrogels have utilized oxidative cross-linking, which is hypothesized to reduce the adhesive properties of DOPA and requires reagents that are harmful to biological tissues. In this paper, we describe the synthesis of N-methacrylated DOPA monomers and their copolymerization with poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA) using either ultraviolet (UV) or visible light. The effect of DOPA containing monomers on gelation time, gel conversion and elastic modulus of the photocured hydrogels was investigated. Despite a retarding effect of DOPA on photopolymerization, DOPA was successfully incorporated into hydrogels with elastic moduli suitable for many biomedical applications. The incorporation of DOPA into hydrogels by photopolymerization may lead to new adhesive hydrogels for medical applications.

Dihydroxyphenylalanine↗

PubMed2003

The effect of length and concentration of glass fibers on the mechanical properties of an injection- and a compression-molded denture base polymer.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM: Fiber-reinforcement has been used to overcome the mechanical limitations of denture base polymers. One major difficulty in the use of fiber reinforcement has been the addition of fibers during conventional processing methods. PURPOSE: This study evaluated the effect of various lengths and concentrations of chopped E-glass fiber-reinforcement on the transverse strength, modulus of elasticity, and impact strength of injection and compression-molded polymethyl methacrylate based denture base polymer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Test specimens (n=10) of 4-, 6-, and 8-mm fiber length and 1%, 3%, and 5% weight fiber concentrations were prepared with either an injection or a compression-molded processing method. Denture base polymer specimens without any fiber reinforcement were used as control for both processing methods. Transverse strength test specimens (65 x 10 x 2.5 mm) were stored in water bath at 37 degrees C for 2 weeks. The transverse strength (MPa) and modulus of elasticity (GPa) was measured with the 3-point bending test. Impact strength (kJ/m(2)) test specimens (60 x 7.5 x 4 mm) were tested with the Charpy-type pendulum impact test setup. The data were analyzed with multifactorial analysis of variance and Tukey post hoc tests (alpha=.05). RESULTS: Injection-molded fiber-reinforced groups showed significantly higher transversal strength, elastic modulus, and impact strength compared with compression-molded groups (P <.001). In the injection-molded groups, fiber concentration increased all mechanical properties tested (P <.05), but fiber length only increased transverse strength and modulus of elasticity (P <.05). In the compression molded groups, fiber concentration affected modulus of elasticity and impact strength significantly (P <.05), but fiber length did not show any significant effect on the mechanical properties tested (P >.05). CONCLUSION: The transverse strength, elastic modulus and impact strength of injection-molded denture base polymer increased significantly with the use of chopped E-glass fibers, whereas the effect was not significant with the compression-molded polymer.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2004

Reassessment of brain elasticity for analysis of biomechanisms of hydrocephalus.

This paper presents results from a finite element study of the biomechanics of hydrocephalus, with special emphasis on a reassessment of the parenchyma elastic modulus. A two-dimensional finite element model of the human brain/ventricular system is developed and analysed under hydrocephalic loading conditions. It is shown that the Young's modulus of the brain parenchyma used in previous studies (3000-10000 Pa) corresponds to strain rates much higher than those present in hydrocephalic brains. Consideration of the brain's viscoelasticity leads to the derivation of a considerably lower modulus value of approximately 584 Pa.

Brain↗

PubMed1998

Limits on the contrast of strain concentrations in elastography.

Using an analytic solution of the elasticity equation derived for a cylindrical inclusion, it is shown that the contrast of the strain concentrations is limited for both hard and soft lesions. This means that, beyond a given elastic modulus contrast, the strain concentrations remain virtually constant.

Artifacts↗