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PubMed2001

Visual discrimination learning impairments produced by combined transections of the anterior temporal stem, amygdala and fornix in marmoset monkeys.

Marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) with bilateral transections of the anterior temporal stem, amygdala and fornix were unable to relearn a 2-choice object discrimination first learnt prior to surgery, and were very severely impaired at relearning a concurrent object discrimination task which they had learnt and relearnt prior to surgery, indicating that they had a dense retrograde amnesia. They also had difficulty learning new visual object discriminations but were only mildly impaired on spatial learning. When tested on new learning of concurrent discriminations 8 to 10 weeks after surgery, three operated monkeys were unable to reach criterion in 400 trials while the remaining two operated monkeys performed within the normal range. The operated monkeys were subsequently shown to be impaired on acquisition of shape discriminations using black objects. These anterograde effects suggest that the impairment runs mainly in the domain of visual analysis. The monkeys also exhibited many of the features of the Klüver-Bucy syndrome. Histological analysis indicated that in addition to cutting some of the subcortical temporal lobe efferent pathways, the surgical procedures had cut the cholinergic afferents to the temporal neocortex, entorhinal cortex, and hippocampus. In a second experiment we found that treatment with the cholinergic agonist pilocarpine, which is effective in monkeys with specific cholinergic lesions, was unable to remediate the lesion-induced impairments. This suggests that transection of the non-cholinergic afferents, or the temporal lobe subcortical efferents, contributed to the behavioural syndrome and the learning and retention deficits seen in these monkeys.

Acetylcholinesterase↗

PubMed2006

An integrative genomic approach to uncover molecular mechanisms of prokaryotic traits.

With mounting availability of genomic and phenotypic databases, data integration and mining become increasingly challenging. While efforts have been put forward to analyze prokaryotic phenotypes, current computational technologies either lack high throughput capacity for genomic scale analysis, or are limited in their capability to integrate and mine data across different scales of biology. Consequently, simultaneous analysis of associations among genomes, phenotypes, and gene functions is prohibited. Here, we developed a high throughput computational approach, and demonstrated for the first time the feasibility of integrating large quantities of prokaryotic phenotypes along with genomic datasets for mining across multiple scales of biology (protein domains, pathways, molecular functions, and cellular processes). Applying this method over 59 fully sequenced prokaryotic species, we identified genetic basis and molecular mechanisms underlying the phenotypes in bacteria. We identified 3,711 significant correlations between 1,499 distinct Pfam and 63 phenotypes, with 2,650 correlations and 1,061 anti-correlations. Manual evaluation of a random sample of these significant correlations showed a minimal precision of 30% (95% confidence interval: 20%-42%; n = 50). We stratified the most significant 478 predictions and subjected 100 to manual evaluation, of which 60 were corroborated in the literature. We furthermore unveiled 10 significant correlations between phenotypes and KEGG pathways, eight of which were corroborated in the evaluation, and 309 significant correlations between phenotypes and 166 GO concepts evaluated using a random sample (minimal precision = 72%; 95% confidence interval: 60%-80%; n = 50). Additionally, we conducted a novel large-scale phenomic visualization analysis to provide insight into the modular nature of common molecular mechanisms spanning multiple biological scales and reused by related phenotypes (metaphenotypes). We propose that this method elucidates which classes of molecular mechanisms are associated with phenotypes or metaphenotypes and holds promise in facilitating a computable systems biology approach to genomic and biomedical research.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1984

Computer-assisted video analysis of [3H]spiroperidol binding autoradiographs.

A computer-based video image processing system is described that quantifies the binding of the neuroleptic drug, [3H]spiroperidol, to rat forebrain sections. Adjacent sections were incubated in buffer containing [3H]spiroperidol or [3H]spiroperidol plus 1 microM (+)-butaclamol and exposed to tritium-sensitive film to produce autoradiographs of total binding or non-butaclamol-displaced ('non-specific') binding. The image processing system digitized each autoradiograph, attenuated geometric distortion and unevenness of background illumination, and reassigned the digitized image intensities (gray values) to be a linear function of fmol [3H]spiroperidol bound per mg protein by using a calibration curve generated from 3H-containing tissue standards. An image of butaclamol-displaced ('specific') [3H]spiroperidol binding was produced by subtracting the linearized image of non-specific binding from the superimposed image of total binding. An image of percent specific [3H]spiroperidol binding was obtained by dividing the image of specific binding by the superimposed image of total binding. The computer-derived images, which could be displayed in gray tones or pseudocolor-coded, revealed that the greatest amounts of specific [3H]spiroperidol binding (1000-3000 fmol/mg protein; 60-80% specifically bound) were located in layers 5A and 5C of the neocortex, the claustrum, and in the caudate-putamen, where a lateral-to-medial binding gradient occurred. [3H]Spiroperidol was bound to a lesser extent (400-1000 fmol/mg protein; 31-51% specifically bound) to the medial nucleus accumbens septi or olfactory tubercle and without measurable specificity to the lateral septum, anterior commissure, corpus callosum, or superficial neocortex. These procedures are particularly useful for the quantitative and visual analysis of autoradiographs in which [3H]ligand binding is associated with more than a single site.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Evidence for spatio-temporal selectivity in attentional modulation of the motion aftereffect.

An ignored region of the visual field might be monitored by an intermittent full visual analysis or by a more continuous but restricted analysis. We investigated which type of process is more likely in early vision by studying the effects of diverting attention on adaptation to a range of spatial (0.5, 2, 4. and 6 c/deg) and temporal (1.5 and 10 Hz) frequencies. During adaptation, subjects either fixated an unchanging digit (normal attention). or named the sequence of changing digits which formed the fixation point (diverted). The test field was always a static version of the adapting field, and the strength of adaptation was measured through the velocity and duration of subsequent Motion Aftereffects (MAEs). When attention during adaptation was normal MAE durations rose with spatial frequency for the 1.5 Hz stimuli, and declined with spatial frequency for the 10 Hz stimuli. When attention was diverted from the 10 Hz stimuli, MAE durations and velocities fell by a similar amount at all spatial frequencies. However, for the 1.5 Hz stimuli, the effects of diversion were very small at 0.5 c/deg, and rose progressively with spatial frequency, so that MAE reductions were largest at 6 c/deg. It appears that diversion hardly affects the encoding of coarse, slow stimuli, but attenuates the encoding of finer and/or faster stimuli. This is consistent with the idea that during diversion the visual system monitors the scene continuously, but over a restricted range of spatial and temporal scales.

Adaptation, Ocular↗

PubMed2000

Disseminated thyroid autonomy or Graves' disease: reevaluation by a second generation TSH receptor antibody assay.

The clinical diagnosis of disseminated autonomy (DISA) can only be established by exclusion of Graves' disease (GD). Both hyperthyroid conditions share the same scintigraphic appearance and can only be distinguished from each other clinically either by the presence or absence of endocrine ophthalmopathy (EO) or thyrotropin (TSH) binding inhibiting immunoglobulins (TBIIs). The purpose of this study was the reevaluation of thyroid autonomies originally classified as DISAs by a second-generation radioreceptor antibody assay (RAA) (DYNOtest TRAKhuman) (B.R.A.H.M.S. Diagnostika, Berlin, Germany). The analysis included 32 patients (female: n = 25, male: n = 7; mean age: 46 +/- 18 years) who were initially diagnosed with DISA. All patients were TSH receptor (TSHR) antibody (TRAb) negative by a conventional radioimmunoassay (RIA) (TSH-REZAK RIA) (Medipan Diagnostica, Selchow, Germany) during their first evaluation. The presence of EO was excluded by clinical signs in all patients. Surgery had been performed prior to our evaluation in 5 patients and after our survey in 1 patient. Four patients had been treated previously with 131I. Ten patients were treated with thionamides during our evaluation, and 13 had not been treated before. One hundred three patients who had either healthy thyroids, nontoxic goiters, or focal autonomies served as controls and were evaluated both by the TSH-REZAK assay and the DYNOtest TRAKhuman assay. Seven of thirty-two (22%) patients originally classified as DISA were TRAb positive in the second-generation assay. In this group, 5 of 7 patients had a total thyroid volume (TTV) <30 mL (positive predictive value [PPW] for TRAb positivity 71%), and 5 of 7 patients had a diffuse goiter (PPW for TRAb-positivity 71%). Six of seven patients were anti-thyroperoxidase (TPO) positive (PPW for TRAb positivity 85%). A hypoechoid pattern on ultrasound was present by visual analysis in 3 of 7 patients (PPW for TRAb positivity 43%). A 100% PPW for TRAb positivity could be obtained if a goiter <30 ml was combined with anti-TPO positivity, but this combination was present in only 4 of 7 (57%) patients. With the second-generation assay, one false positive test result was observed in the control group. Surgery was performed in 6 patients who were TRAb negative in both assays. In all these cases, the histologic findings were compatible with autonomous transformation of the thyroid. Our study demonstrates that a significant number (22%) of patients formerly classified as DISA may actually have GD. However, DISA still exists as a clinical entity, and its pathophysiological link to multifocal and unifocal autonomy should be further investigated.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Object attention revisited: identifying mechanisms and boundary conditions.

Multiple attributes of a visual array are often more efficiently processed when they are attributes of a single object than when they are attributes of different objects-a pattern reflecting the limitations of object attention. This study used psychophysical methods to evaluate the object attention limitations in the report of attributes (orientation and phase) computed early in visual analysis for spatially separated objects. These limitations had large effects on dual-object report thresholds when different judgments were required for the two objects (orientation for one object and phase for the other), but the effects were small or nonexistent when the same judgment was made about both objects. Judgment consistency reduced or eliminated the expression of object attention deficits. Thus, the deficits in dual-object report reflect both division of attention over objects and the calculation of independent reference or judgment operations. Dual-object deficits, when they occurred, were substantial in displays with external noise masks. Smaller effects were observed in clear displays, even when difficulty was equated by stimulus contrast. Thus, the primary consequence of object attention is the exclusion of external noise, or mask suppression, and enhancement of the stimulus in clear displays is a secondary consequence.

Attention↗

PubMed2005

Taking an "intentional stance" on eye-gaze shifts: a functional neuroimaging study of social perception in children.

During middle childhood, children develop an increasing understanding of intentions and other social information conveyed through dynamic facial cues such as changes in eye-gaze direction. Recent work in our laboratory has focused on using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in adults to map the neural circuitry subserving the visual analysis of others' actions and the intentions underlying these actions. In these studies, the superior temporal sulcus (STS) region has been continually implicated in processing shifts in eye gaze. Further, these studies have indicated that STS activity is modulated by the context within which eye-gaze shifts occur, suggesting that this region is involved in social perception via its role in the analysis of the intentions of observed actions. Still, no studies have investigated the neural circuitry supporting eye-gaze processing in children. We used event-related fMRI to examine brain activity in 7- to 10-year-old healthy children observing an animated virtual actor who shifted her eyes towards either a target object or empty space. Consistent with prior studies in adults, the STS, middle temporal gyrus, and inferior parietal lobule were sensitive to the intentions underlying the stimulus character's eye movements. These findings suggest that the neural circuitry underlying the processing of eye gaze and the detection of intentions conveyed through shifts in eye gaze in children are similar to that found previously in adults. We discuss these findings and potential implications for mapping the neurodevelopment of the social cognition and social perception abnormalities characteristic of autism.

Aging↗

PubMed1996

The effect of varying stimulus rate and duration on brain activity during reading.

The effect of the presentation rate and exposure duration of visually presented words on brain activity was investigated using positron emission tomography. Subjects either read aloud or silently mouthed the names of words. In regions associated with early visual analysis, activity increased with both rate and duration; in regions associated with response generation, activity increased with increasing rate but was unaffected by duration; and in regions associated with word recognition, activity decreased with increasing duration. The variable responses of different brain regions illustrate the functional segregation of these regions. Of particular interest was the dissociation between activity in the posterior fusiform gyri and that in the medial lingual gyrus--in the former, activity increased with rate and duration but the latter was unaffected by either variable. This finding suggests that word processing in the lingual gyrus during reading is distinct from that in the posterior fusiform gyri. A further observation was that during reading aloud, when subjects can hear the sound of their own voice, the response in the primary auditory cortices increased with stimulus rate, demonstrating that subjects process the sound of their own voice in a qualitatively similar way to words spoken by another.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Evolutionary approaches to understanding sleep.

A major controversy over REM sleep's role in memory processing may owe to inadequate allowances for the highly conservative nature of evolutionary adaptations. The controversy hinges on whether NREM sleep, alone, retains primitive memory processing capabilities. The selective pressure for primitive sleep, is thought to have been the need to obviate conflicts between enormous neural processing requirements of complex visual analysis and split-second control of movements, on the one hand, and memory processing, on the other. The most efficient memory processing during mammalian and avian sleep appears to be a two-step process: synapses in individual component circuits of events are reinforced primarily by slow brain waves during NREM sleep, with the reinforced components temporally bound by fast waves, and manifested as dreams, during REM sleep. This dual action could account for partitioning of sleep periods into multiple NREM-REM cycles. It is proposed that in the absence of REM sleep, all needed memory processing can be accomplished by NREM sleep, alone, though less efficiently. Many symptoms of fatal familial insomnia are attributed to subnormal nightly reinforcement of brain circuitry because of almost total loss of sleep, and compensatory responses thereto during waking. During this disorder, sensory circuitry seemingly is spared by virtue of its supernormal reinforcement during almost continuous waking. Contrariwise, sparing of an adult's 'higher faculties' in encephalitis lethargica appears to owe to supernormal circuit reinforcement during almost continuous sleep.

Awareness↗

PubMed2006

GOLEM: an interactive graph-based gene-ontology navigation and analysis tool.

BACKGROUND: The Gene Ontology has become an extremely useful tool for the analysis of genomic data and structuring of biological knowledge. Several excellent software tools for navigating the gene ontology have been developed. However, no existing system provides an interactively expandable graph-based view of the gene ontology hierarchy. Furthermore, most existing tools are web-based or require an Internet connection, will not load local annotations files, and provide either analysis or visualization functionality, but not both. RESULTS: To address the above limitations, we have developed GOLEM (Gene Ontology Local Exploration Map), a visualization and analysis tool for focused exploration of the gene ontology graph. GOLEM allows the user to dynamically expand and focus the local graph structure of the gene ontology hierarchy in the neighborhood of any chosen term. It also supports rapid analysis of an input list of genes to find enriched gene ontology terms. The GOLEM application permits the user either to utilize local gene ontology and annotations files in the absence of an Internet connection, or to access the most recent ontology and annotation information from the gene ontology webpage. GOLEM supports global and organism-specific searches by gene ontology term name, gene ontology id and gene name. CONCLUSION: GOLEM is a useful software tool for biologists interested in visualizing the local directed acyclic graph structure of the gene ontology hierarchy and searching for gene ontology terms enriched in genes of interest. It is freely available both as an application and as an applet at http://function.princeton.edu/GOLEM.

Computer Graphics↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Sharpen&Bend: recovering curved sharp edges in triangle meshes produced by feature-insensitive sampling.

Various acquisition, analysis, visualization, and compression approaches sample surfaces of 3D shapes in a uniform fashion without any attempt to align the samples with sharp edges or to adapt the sampling density to the surface curvature. Consequently, triangle meshes that interpolate these samples usually chamfer sharp features and exhibit a relatively large error in their vicinity. We present two new filters that improve the quality of these resampled models. EdgeSharpener restores the sharp edges by splitting the chamfer edges and forcing the new vertices to lie on intersections of planes extending the smooth surfaces incident upon these chamfers. Bender refines the resulting triangle mesh using an interpolating subdivision scheme that preserves the sharpness of the recovered sharp edges while bending their polyline approximations into smooth curves. A combined Sharpen&Bend postprocessing significantly reduces the error produced by feature-insensitive sampling processes. For example, we have observed that the mean-squared distortion introduced by the SwingWrapper remeshing-based compressor can often be reduced by 80 percent executing EdgeSharpener alone after decompression. For models with curved regions, this error may be further reduced by an additional 60 percent if we follow the EdgeSharpening phase by Bender.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1983

A reevaluation of the functional organization and cytoarchitecture of the feline lateral posterior complex, with observations on adjoining cell groups.

The organization of the cat's lateral posterior complex was reevaluated and its cytoarchitecture described. Analysis of visual representations within the complex confirmed that the pulvinar, lateral zone (LPL), and interjacent zone (LPi) correspond to separate representations of the visual field and established that the zones exhibit heterogeneous connections as a result of retinotopic interconnections with extrastriate areas which represent varying amounts of the visual field. A common system of visual representation extending through layers with differing anatomical connections was identified within zone LPL. The concept of an "isorepresentation cord" was introduced to describe these variable correspondences between sensory representations and connectional relationships. Isorepresentation cords are conceived as holding in common representation of a common locus on a sensory surface without functioning as a unit with respect to connections. Visual representations within the lateral posterior complex consist of many such cords arranged in orderly array. Zone LPm (medial) was also delineated more accurately on the basis of its connections with the ectosylvian visual area. Analysis of termination patterns which occupy boundary regions adjacent to and between the principal zones further established the existence of a collection of cell groups which form a thin, irregular shell investing the principal zones. The identification of these additional cell groups and the recognition of connectional heterogeneity within the principal zones of the complex made it possible to identify and describe the subtle cytoarchitectural differences which characterize the subdivisions of the lateral posterior complex and their boundaries with adjoining nuclear groups. The present findings are discussed with respect to the functions of the lateral posterior complex in interconnecting cortical visual and visuomotor areas, and with respect to the conceptual issues raised by variable correspondences between sensory representations and connectional relationships within thalamus.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Low-vision reading speed: influences of linguistic inference and aging.

PURPOSE: Reading is a dynamic task involving both linguistic and visual analysis. In this study, we asked how two types of linguistic information--characters used in segmenting words from one another, and sentence context--differ in their usefulness for people with normal and low vision. Given evidence for age-related differences in some forms of cognitive processing, we also investigated the effect of age. METHODS: There were four groups of 10 participants: vision status (normal, low) crossed with age (young, <35 years; old, >65 years). Reading speeds were compared for regularly spaced text and text in which the spaces were removed, a manipulation intended to eliminate local cues for text segmentation and force attention to clusters of letters or whole words. We also evaluated the effect of sentence context by comparing reading speeds for regular sentences and sentences in which word order was scrambled. RESULTS: Removal of spaces had a greater impact on low vision than normal vision, reducing average speeds to 45% and 66% of speeds for regularly spaced text, respectively. We interpret this to mean that people with low vision have less access to spatially distributed linguistic regularities of text such as prefixes, suffixes, or word length. Removal of sentence context through scrambling had a greater impact on normal vision than low vision, reducing mean reading speed to 53% and 66%, respectively. Finally, comparison of our young and old readers showed no major differences in the use of sentence context or in the impact of removing spaces between words. CONCLUSIONS: People with low vision appear to rely more on spacing information in sentences, whereas people with normal vision appear to make better use of sentence context, irrespective of age.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging. Clinical applications and contributions to the understanding of temporal lobe epilepsy.

In recent years, magnetic resonance imaging-based volumetric measurements of the amygdala and hippocampus have proved useful in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. This imaging modality allows amygdaloid and hippocampal volumes to be correlated with neurophysiological, neuropathological, and neuropsychological findings, surgical outcome, and clinical findings. We evaluated the technical and anatomical aspects underlying the successful use of the modality that were reported in previous studies. We also evaluated issues such as the sensitivity and specificity of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging, its use in bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy, and the debate concerning the sensitivity of qualitative visual analysis vs quantitative volumetric analysis of magnetic resonance images. Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging, when used in conjunction with video electroencephalographic monitoring, neuropsychological studies, and other neuroimaging studies, will enable patients with temporal lobe epilepsy to be treated in an appropriate, efficient, and cost-effective manner.

Amygdala↗

PubMed2002

Magnetic resonance imaging evidence of hippocampal sclerosis in asymptomatic, first-degree relatives of patients with familial mesial temporal lobe epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the presence of hippocampal atrophy (HA) and other magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signs of hippocampal sclerosis (HS) in asymptomatic relatives of patients with familial mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (FMTLE). METHODS: We invited first-degree, asymptomatic relatives of patients with FMTLE to participate in our MRI protocol. After obtaining informed consent, all participating individuals underwent an MRI examination. Hippocampal abnormality was determined by qualitative and volumetric analyses, using a standard protocol. RESULTS: We studied 52 asymptomatic individuals (27 men), with a mean age of 32 years (range, 7-71 years), from 11 families with FMTLE. Volumetric studies showed HA in 18 (34%) of 52 individuals: 11 had left HA and 7 had bilateral HA. In addition, careful visual analysis of T1- and T2-weighted images showed additional classic MRI signs of HS (such as abnormal T2 signal and/or abnormal internal structure) in 14 of these 18 individuals. There was no age difference between individuals with and without HA (t test, P =.80). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that MRI evidence of HS is not necessarily related to seizure severity and may occur in individuals who never had seizures. In addition, these observations strongly indicate that HS in FMTLE is not a consequence of recurrent seizures and is determined by a strong genetic predisposition. The determination of seizure severity in patients with FMTLE probably depends on the interaction of different factors, both genetic and environmental.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1975

Regional myocardial infarction at operation. An automated system of identification.

The difference between normal and infarcted myocardium at operation cannot always be defected by inspection or palpation. Infarcted myocardium may be identified by a decrease in the amplitude of the ventricular bipolar electrogram. Although this method is reliable and reproducible, it requires a second observer's visual analysis and interpretation of the electrogram signal. This method is therefore subject to the vagaries of human observation, analysis, and accounts of rapidly changing data. We have designed and built an automated instrument to simplify the recognition of transmural infarction.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Ligand-based protein alignment and isozyme specificity of glutathione S-transferase inhibitors.

Glutathione S-transferases (GST, E.C.2.5.1.18) comprise a family of detoxification enzymes. Elevated levels of specific GST isozymes in tumor cells are thought responsible for resistance to chemotherapeutics, which renders selective GST inhibitors potentially useful pharmaceutical agents. We discuss the development of a structure activity model that rationalizes the isozyme selectivity observed in a series of 12 glutathione (GSH) analogues. Enzymatic activity data was determined for human P1-1, A1-1, and M2-2 isozymes, and these data were then considered in light of structural features of these three GST proteins. A survey of all GST structures in the PDB revealed that GSH binds to these proteins in a single "bioactive" conformation. To focus on differences between binding sites, we exploited our finding of a common GSH conformation and aligned the GST x-ray structures using bound ligands rather than the backbones of the different proteins. Once aligned, binding site lipophilicity and electrostatic potentials were computed, visualized, and compared. Docking and energy minimization exercises provided additional refinements to a model of selectivity developed initially by visual analysis. Our results suggest that binding site shape and lipophilic character are key determinants of GST isozyme selectivity for close GSH analogues.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Response of primary leptomeningeal melanoma to intrathecal recombinant interleukin-2. A case report.

BACKGROUND: Primary leptomeningeal melanomas are rare tumors that originate in the leptomeninges and are associated with a poor prognosis and no response to radiation and chemotherapy. These tumors rarely metastasize outside the central nervous system. Recombinant interleukin-2-(rIL-2) is a cytokine that activates natural killer cells and lymphokine-activated killer cells, augments their antitumor effects, and recruits and activates cytotoxic T lymphocytes. We have hypothesized that rIL-2 may prolong disease free survival in a patient with primary leptomeningeal melanoma. METHODS: The patient was treated with intrathecal rIL-2 via lumbar puncture daily for 5 days, the weekly for 5 weeks. To investigate whether rIL-2 induced a favorable clinical response, the following parameters were monitored: survival, neurologic status, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, visual fields, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lumbosacral spine. RESULTS: The patient is still alive and disease free 15 months after receiving rIL-2, and his neurologic status remains unchanged. The CFS glucose concentration, undetectable prior to therapy, has become normal. Repeated cytologic examinations of CSF were negative for malignant cells. The visual field examinations have remained unchanged. MRI scans of the lumbosacral spine have shown the development of arachnoiditis, but no recurrence of the mass lesion. CONCLUSIONS: The tumor response in this patient, as measured by remarkable disease free survival and normalization of the CSF glucose concentration, illustrates the potential benefits of intrathecal rIL-2 in the treatment of patients with this otherwise rapidly fatal disease.

Animals↗