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Bioinorganic chemistry remains a vibrant discipline at the interface of chemistry and the biological sciences. Metal ions function in numerous metalloenzymes, are incorporated into pharmaceuticals and imaging agents, and inspire the synthesis of catalysts used to achieve many chemical transformations.
During the second half of the 20th century, biochemistry and subsequently molecular biology blossomed into the core upon which all biological and biomedical sciences now depend. A major part of these closely related disciplines has been the study of the structure and function of proteins and the diverse biological functions that they perform. Early experimentation necessarily focused on individual entities, selected mainly for their activities, but as technology improved there developed a tendency to look at proteins as larger, interactive groups or clusters. Spurred by the recent exponential production of genomic sequence data for a rapidly increasing number of species, protein chemistry has now evolved into a new discipline, proteomics. In addition to embracing the methods and approaches that have served protein scientists well in the past, it includes, and is perhaps best defined by, high-throughput analyses based in large part on 2D gel electrophoresis, MALDI and ESI mass spectrometry and combinatorial arrays. Proteomic targets include the identification of all genome products and a mapping of their interactions and expression profiles. These hold great promise for the identification of disease markers and drug targets, but are not without their challenges and pitfalls.
Cognitive impairment in old age is one of the most important topics in modern geriatrics. This article discusses the historical dimensions of this phenomenon. To this end, a number of primary sources ranging from antiquity to the modern era are evaluated. Although a physiology and pathology of old age were conceptualized in Greco-Roman times, cognitive impairment in old age remained a marginal issue until the 17th century. Alternatively, after 1500, medicine boasted detailed theories on the physiology and pathology of old age. There are several possible explanations for this unusual situation. Underlying conflict between idealistic and materialistic views of man played a decisive role, for these concepts differed considerably regarding the intellectual and mental functioning of the soul as well as the effects of the passage of time. After Cartesianism and Iatromechanism had pushed these traditional boundaries back, the problem of cognitive impairment in old age was increasingly regarded as a physical illness and began to receive more attention. Just as its philosophical and theological context shaped early modern medicine, contemporary nonmedical disciplines such as genetics, (neuro-)biology, and the information sciences influence modern research.
Interdisciplinary research has become a matter of paramount importance for novel applications of nanomaterials in biology and medicine. As such, many disciplines-physics, chemistry, microbiology, cell biology, and material science-all contribute to the design, synthesis and fabrication of functional and biocompatible devices at the nanometer scale. Since the most areas of cell biology and biomedicine deal with functional entities such as DNA and proteins, mimicry of these structures and function in the nanosize range offers exciting opportunities for the development of biosensors, biochips, and bioplatforms. In this report we highlight the potential benefits and challenges that arise in the manufacture of biocompatible nanoparticles and nano-networks that can be coupled with biological objects. Among the challenges facing us are those concerned with making the necessary advances in enabling affordability, innovation, and quality of manufactured nanodevices for rapid progress in the emerging field of bio-nanotechnology. The convergence of nanotechnology and biomedicine makes nanoscale research highly promising for new discoveries that can cost-effectively accelerate progress in moving from basic research to practical prototypes and products.
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The biology of the past century was, undoubtedly, reductionist. Its general trend was expressed in the appearance and burst of scientific disciplines, such as biochemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, molecular genetics, virology, cell biology, and bioorganic chemistry. All these disciplines are united by an aspiration to explain the phenomena of life through the description of the properties of molecules, first of all, biopolymers, which constitute the living organisms. In current science, all these directions are often united under the general heading "physicochemical biology", while classical biological disciplines, such as zoology, botany, embryology, etc., are referred to as "general biology".
Our understanding of cell structure and function derives from applications of a variety of physical and life science disciplines, methods and models to an important physiological process, namely, the exchange and transport of ions and molecules across biological membranes. We know that ion transport through membranes arises from a diversity of interrelated and interactive physical and chemical phenomena over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Among these phenomena common to all cellular structure and function include metabolism, kinetics of molecules, chemically mediated alteration of cell membrane electrical potential, membrane ion conductance, electrical signal propagation, and modulation by chemo- and mechanoreceptive mechanisms. This review focuses on the unique information contained in fluctuations in electrical properties associated with cell membrane ion transport.
The post-genomic era heralds a multitude of challenges for chemists and biologists alike, with the study of protein functions at the heart of much research. The elucidation of protein structure, localization, stability, post-translational modifications, and protein interactions will steadily unveil the role of each protein and its associated biological function in the cell. The push to develop new technologies has necessitated the integration of various disciplines in science. Consequently, the role of chemistry has never been so profound in the study of biological processes. By combining the strengths of recombinant DNA technology, protein splicing, organic chemistry, and the chemoselective chemistry of native chemical ligation, various strategies have been successfully developed and applied to chemoselectively label proteins, both in vitro and in live cells, with biotin, fluorescent, and other small molecule probes. The site-specific incorporation of molecular entities with unique chemical functionalities in proteins has many potential applications in chemical and biological studies of proteins. In this article, we highlight recent progress of these strategies in several areas related to proteomics and chemical biology, namely, in vitro and in vivo protein biotinylation, protein microarray technologies for large-scale protein analysis, and live-cell bioimaging.
Advances in neuroscientific understandings of the interrelationships between brain, behavior, emotion, and cognition offer new opportunities for psychiatric-mental health nursing. Yet, even though the discipline conceptually embraces a biopsychosocial perspective as part of its holistic mandate, the factual integration of biological sciences into practice, research, and education is limited. Integrating the biological perspective into a holistic paradigm and progressing toward a discipline in which the biological, psychological, and social interact coherently and interdependently requires a dual focus on understanding and treating patients and their social and physical environments. We describe how in the past the discipline has strived toward understanding and treating patients from predominantly psychological and social perspectives. We also show how progress in the biology of mental health and illness provides new avenues for understanding and treating patients' responses to actual and potential health problems. This in turn will contribute to the emergence of a truly holistic discipline of psychiatric-mental health nursing.
Technological advances in the biological, chemical and in silico sciences have transformed many scientific disciplines, including toxicology. A vast new palate of toxicity testing tools is now available to investigators, enabling the generation of enormous amounts of data using only small amounts of test sample and at relatively low cost. In addition to these tools, the pharmaceutical industry has an urgent need for toxicity testing earlier in the process, based on the recognition that safety issues are the single largest cause of drug candidate attrition from development portfolios and the marketplace. However, along with the opportunity provided by new testing tools comes the dilemma of deciding which tools to use and, equally as important, when and why to use them. It may well be unwise to apply a new toxicity test or screening system simply because one can, as both false positive and false negative outcomes can quickly negate the value of a toxicity test system and may even have a net negative impact on drug discovery productivity. This can be true even of test systems that are considered to be 'validated' in the traditional sense. How then is an investigator or drug discovery organization to decide which of the new tools to use, and when to use them? Proposed herein is a strategy for identifying high-value toxicity testing systems and strategies based on program knowledge and informed decision-making. The decision to apply a certain toxicity testing system in this strategy is informed by knowledge of the pharmacological target, the chemical features of molecules active at the pharmacological target, and existing public domain or institutional learning. This 'fit-for-purpose' approach limits non-targeted or 'uninformed' toxicity screening to only those few test systems with high specificity, strong outcome concordance and molecular relevance to frequently encountered toxicity risks (eg, genotoxicity). Additional toxicity testing and screening is then conducted to address specific known or potential toxicity risks, based on existing knowledge of the target pharmacology and secondary pharmacology or chemical attributes with known or suspect risk, and by active 'interrogation' of both the target and active chemical moieties during the drug discovery process. This model for toxicity testing decision-making is illustrated by two case studies from recent experience.
Since 1976 health education has been incorporated in most school programmes at various levels, from the kindergarten (3 years) to the end of high school (16 years). In kindergarten and at primary level health education belongs to a series of activities called d'éveil meant to sharpen the interest of the child in the social, cultural and artistic fields. At secondary level, health education, though not an autonomous discipline, is usually incorporated in courses of natural sciences or biology. There are also specific health education activities when an entire form spends a month by the sea shore or in the mountains. To help teachers in their task the French Committee for Health Education produces every year teaching material specially conceived for different age groups. The main subjects dealt with concern oral health, the prevention of home accidents, nutrition, smoking control and the promotion of health. The various activities of the French Committee for Health Education have revealed new needs which concern the training of teachers, change in mentality and improved coordination.
During the last two centuries, humanity has gone through two major transitions:first a demographic transition and second an epidemiological transition. In this moving environment, attention has been placed on a better understanding of the conditions of human reproduction. The role of epidemiology, a quantitative discipline, situated at the interface between biology, medicine and social sciences, has largely contributed to favoring advances in knowledge and rational use of data, with the aim of improving the health of the general population. Inversely, the new problems involved in the complex situation of human reproduction, of which using two individuals as the basic statistical unit for procreation is not of the least importance, have certainly contributed to the advancement of epidemiology.
Singapore has embraced the life sciences as an important discipline to be emphasized in schools and universities. This is part of the nation's strategic move towards a knowledge-based economy, with the life sciences poised as a new engine for economic growth. In the life sciences, the area of developmental biology is of prime interest, since it is not just intriguing for students to know how a single cell can give rise to a complex, coordinated, functional life that is multicellular and multifaceted, but more importantly, there is much in developmental biology that can have biomedical implications. At different levels in the Singapore educational system, students are exposed to various aspects of developmental biology. The author has given many guest lectures to secondary (ages 12-16) and high school (ages 17-18) students to enthuse them about topics such as embryo cloning and stem cell biology. At the university level, some selected topics in developmental biology are part of a broader course which caters for students not majoring in the life sciences, so that they will learn to comprehend how development takes place and the significance of the knowledge and impacts of the technologies derived in the field. For students majoring in the life sciences, the subject is taught progressively in years two and three, so that students will gain specialist knowledge in developmental biology. As they learn, students are exposed to concepts, principles and mechanisms that underlie development. Different model organisms are studied to demonstrate the rapid advances in this field and to show the interconnectivity of developmental themes among living things. The course inevitably touches on life and death matters, and the social and ethical implications of recent technologies which enable scientists to manipulate life are discussed accordingly, either in class, in a discussion forum, or through essay writing.
During the last years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has developed from a microscopy tool for solid-state surface science toward a method employed in many scientific disciplines, such as biology, for investigating individual molecules on a nanometer scale. This article describes the current status of the imaging possibilities of AFM on RNA, IgG, and gold-labeled cell adhesion proteoglycans, as well as of measurements of intermolecular binding forces between biomolecules in order to investigate their molecular structure, function, and elasticity.
BACKGROUND: Vitally important to the future of surgical care is the study of nutrition and nutrient uptake. Advances in this field of research have become increasingly dependent upon the disciplines of immunology, histology, and molecular biology. The fusion of these sciences has deepened our insight into the relationship between molecular structure and physiologic function. The ability to apply new technologies to this endeavor will enable the surgeon-investigator to further widen our understanding of nutrient transport. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Medline and current literature review. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: We summarize many of the methods used to measure the uptake of nutrients by the intestinal epithelium, providing a historical perspective.
Progress is reviewed of spaceflight research conducted with plants between 1987 and 1992. Numerous plant experiments have been performed on spacecraft and sounding rockets in the past five years by scientists of the US, the former Soviet Union, Europe, and other areas. The experiments are categorized into three areas: gravity sensing, transduction, and response; development and reproduction; and metabolism, photosynthesis, and transport. The results of these experiments continue to demonstrate that gravity and/or other factors of spaceflight affect plants at the organismal, cellular, subcellular, and molecular levels, resulting in changes in orientation, development, metabolism, and growth. The challenge now is to truly dissect the effects of gravity from those of other spaceflight factors and to identify the basic mechanisms underlying gravity's effects.