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PubMed1996

Photoprotective and antiinflammatory effects of topical glycolic acid.

BACKGROUND: Concerns about photosensitizing potential of alpha hydroxy acids have been expressed. A previous study, however, reported topical glycolic acid showing the opposite potential, that is, photoprotective. This study was designed to test the antiinflammatory and photoprotective capabilities of glycolic acid. OBJECTIVE: The effects of short-wave ultraviolet light (UVB) on skin treated with glycolic acid were evaluated in two different studies at two different locations. METHODS: In the first study the antiinflammatory potential of topical glycolic acid was tested on erythematous templates on the backs of human volunteers. Erythema was induced by exposure to three times the minimum erythema dose (MED) of UVB. Glycolic acid cream in an oil-in-water vehicle at 12% partially neutralized with ammonium hydroxide to a pH of 4.2 was applied to the template beginning 4 hours postirradiation four times a day. A second template on the same subject was used as a vehicle control. After 48 hours a marked reduction of erythema was noted when compared with the vehicle control site. In the second study, four test sites were exposed to UVB light in the following manner. Site 1 was a nontreated control site and was used to establish the MED for the subjects being tested; site 2 was also exposed to a MED series but was treated 24 hours postirradiation for 7 days with two glycolic acid-based products (cleanser and oil-free moisture lotion, both containing 8.0% glycolic acid at a pH of 3.25); site 3 was treated first with the two glycolic acid-based formulas for 3 weeks prior to being exposed to UVB light; and site 4 was treated as outlined in site 3, with the inclusion that the site was chemically peeled for 6 minutes (with a 50% glycolic solution at a pH of 2.75) 15 minutes prior to UVB exposure. RESULTS: When UVB-burned skin was treated with glycolic acid daily for 7 days (site 2), a 16% reduction in irritation was observed compared to nontreated skin (site 1), implying that skin healed sooner when treated with glycolic acid. When a comparison of nontreated skin was made to skin treated with glycolic acid for 3 weeks prior to UVB exposure (site 1 vs site 3), a sun protection factor (SPF) of 2.4 was achieved. When a comparison of skin treated for 3 weeks was made to skin treated for 3 weeks and chemically peeled (site 3 vs site 4) the data implied that the chemical peel reduced the SPF value of skin treated with glycolic by approximately 50%, however, an SPF trend of 1.7 was still obtained when compared with untreated skin. CONCLUSIONS. The studies demonstrated that topical glycolic acid provides a photoprotective effect to pretreated skin yielding an SPF of approximately 2.4. In addition, when glycolic acid is applied to irradiated skin, it accelerates resolution of erythema. The data obtained from both studies support the hypothesis that glycolic acids acts as an antioxidant.

Administration, Topical↗

PubMed1998

The roles of pH and concentration in lactic acid-induced stimulation of epidermal turnover.

BACKGROUND: Alpha hydroxy acids such as lactic and glycolic acids (AHAs) accelerate epidermal turnover and exfoliate the stratum corneum. The roles of pH and concentration in these antiaging effects of AHAs is unclear, but a lower (more acidic) pH and higher concentration of acid are thought to be more effective. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects on skin renewal rates of lactic acid 10% at pHs of 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0, and of 5%, 10% and 15% lactic acid at a pH of 3.0. METHODS: Twenty-six female subjects participated in the double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. The dansyl chloride stain technique was used to measure epidermal renewal times. RESULTS: Both pH and concentration are critical in the lactic acid effect. At a fixed lactic acid concentration, the desquamative effect was highly pH dependent. At a fixed pH, the turnover rate of skin was concentration dependent. CONCLUSION: The desquamative and proliferation-stimulating effects of lactic acid are very pH and concentration dependent, suggesting the "free acid" concentration is the active moiety.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Mechanism of linoleic acid hydroperoxide reaction with alkali.

Treatment of (13S,9Z,11E)-13-hydroperoxy-9,11-octadecadienoic acid (13S-HPODE) with strong alkali resulted in the formation of about 75% of the corresponding hydroxy acid, (13S,9Z,11E)-13-hydroxy-9,11-octadecadienoic acid (13S-HODE), and the remaining 25% of products was a mixture of several oxidized fatty acids, the majority of which was formed from (9Z,11R,S,12S,R)-13-oxo-11,12-epoxy-9-octadecenoic acid by Favorskii rearrangement (Gardner, H.W., et al. (1993) Lipids 28, 487-495). In the present work, isotope experiments were completed in order to get further information about the initial steps of the alkali-promoted decomposition of 13S-HPODE. 1. Reaction of [hydroperoxy-18O2] 13S-HPODE with 5 M KOH resulted in the formation of [hydroxy-18O] 13S-HODE and [epoxy-18O](9Z,11R,S,12S,R)-13-oxo-11,12-epoxy-9-octadecenoi c acid; 2. treatment of a mixture of [U-14C] 13S-HODE and [hydroperoxy-18O2] 13S-HPODE with KOH and analysis of the reaction product by radio-TLC showed that 13S-HODE was stable under the reaction conditions and did not serve as precursor of other products; 3. reaction of a mixture of [U-14C] 13-oxo-9,11-octadecadienoic acid (13-OODE) and [hydroperoxy-18O2] 13S-HPODE with KOH resulted in the formation of [U-14C-epoxy-18O]99Z,11R,S,12S,R)-13-oxo-11,12-epoxy-9-octad ecenoic acid; 4. treatment of a mixture of [hydroperoxy-18O2] 13S-HPODE and [carboxyl-18O1] 13S-HPODE with KOH afforded (9Z,11R,S,12S,R)-13-oxo-11,12-epoxy-9-octadecenoic acid having an 18O-labeling pattern which was in agreement with its formation by intermolecular epoxidation. It was concluded that (9Z,11R,S,12S,R)-13-oxo-11,12-epoxy-9-octadecenoic acid is formed from 13S-HPODE by a sequence involving initial dehydration into the alpha, beta-unsaturated ketone, 13-OODE, followed by epoxidation of the delta 11 double bond of this compound by the peroxyl anion of a second molecule of 13S-HPODE. Rapid conversion of hydroperoxides by alkali appeared to require the presence of an alpha, beta-unsaturated ketone intermediate as an oxygen acceptor. This was supported by experiments with a saturated hydroperoxide, methyl 12-hydroperoxyoctadecanoate, which was found to be much more resistant to alkali-promoted conversion than 13S-HPODE.

Alkalies↗

PubMed1972

Characterization and in vivo production of three glycolipids from Candida Bogoriensis: 13-glucopyranosylglucopyranosyloxydocosanoic acid and its mono- and diacetylated derivatives.

Three glycosides of 13-hydroxydocosanoic acid isolated from Candida bogoriensis were characterized by quantitating the amount of carbohydrate, acetate, and hydroxy acid in each, and by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry of their methyl ester, trimethylsilyl ether derivatives. One of the glycosides was the diacetylated derivative of 13-glucosylglucosyloxydocosanoic acid previously characterized by Tulloch, Spencer, and Deinema (Can. J. Chem., 46: 345 [1968]), in which the disaccharide had the beta(1 --> 2) sophorose linkage and the acetyl groups were attached to the 6' and 6" positions of the glucose residues. The other two glycosides were 13-glucosylglucosyloxydocosanoic acid and its monoacetylated derivative. A comparison of the mass spectra of derivatives indicates that the acetyl group of the monoacetyl lipid is on the internal glucose. Methyl 13-glucosyloxydocosanoate was produced by acid hydrolysis of the methyl ester of the unacetylated glycolipid and was characterized by the same techniques as the other glycolipids. Time course of production of the three glycolipids is consistent with the diacetylated derivative being the first extra-cellular product and the other two glycolipids being formed by deacetylation. 13-Hydroxy[13-(3)H]docosanoic acid, methyl 13-hydroxy[13-(3)H]docosanoate, and 9-hydroxy[11,12-(3)H]-stearic acid were each incorporated into the glycolipid fraction.

Candida↗

PubMed1983

Lipopolysaccharides from Pseudomonas maltophilia: composition of the lipopolysaccharide and structure of the side-chain polysaccharide from strain N.C.I.B. 9204.

Lipopolysaccharide was extracted from defatted cell-walls of Pseudomonas maltophilia N.C.I.B. 9204. The major fatty acid components were 9-methyldecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-9-methyldecanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-9-methyldecanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-dodecanoic acid, and 3-hydroxy-11-methyldodecanoic acid. Monosaccharide components of the phosphorylated core-oligosaccharide were D-glucose, D-mannose, D-galacturonic acid, 2-amino-2-deoxyglucose, and a 3-deoxyoctulosonic acid. The putative O-specific polysaccharide was composed mainly of 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose, D-arabinose, and 6-deoxy-L-talose, but also contained an O-acetyl group and small proportions of rhamnose and 6-deoxy-3-O-methyltalose. Degradative and n.m.r. (1H and 13C) studies showed that the polymer had a branched trisaccharide repeating-unit with the following structure; the O-acetyl group was tentatively assigned to C-2 of the 6-deoxytalopyranosyl residue. (Formula: see text).

Carbohydrate Conformation↗

PubMed1985

Bile acid synthesis in rat liver peroxisomes: metabolism of 26-hydroxycholesterol to 3 beta-hydroxy-5-cholenoic acid.

Rat liver peroxisomes have been found to oxidize 26-hydroxycholesterol, the product of cholesterol C-26 hydroxylation to 3 beta-hydroxy-5-cholenoic acid. Peroxisomes were purified by differential and equilibrium density centrifugation in a steep linear metrizamide gradient to greater than 95% purity. Purity of peroxisomes was determined by measurement of specific marker enzymes. The activities of cytochrome oxidase (a mitochondrial marker) and acid phosphatase (a lysosomal marker) in the purified peroxisome fractions were below the level of detection. Esterase activity indicated a 2-4% microsomal contamination. Subsequent to incubation of peroxisomes with [16,22-3H]-26-hydroxycholesterol, the reaction products were extracted, methylated, acetylated, and subjected to thin-layer, high pressure liquid, and gas-liquid chromatographic analyses. 3 beta-Hydroxy-5-cholenoic acid was the major identifiable metabolite of 26-hydroxycholesterol. Incubations of pure microsomal fractions (greater than 99%) with 26-hydroxycholesterol under the same conditions demonstrated that the production of 3 beta-hydroxy-5-cholenoic acid by peroxisomes was not attributable to microsomal contamination. This study demonstrates that peroxisomes participate in the side-chain oxidation of intermediates in bile acid synthesis.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗

PubMed1987

Synthesis of some 3-hydroxy-5-aminopentanoic acid derivatives.

The 5-amino analogues of mevalonic acid and mevalonolactone, 5-amino-3-hydroxy-3-methylpentanoic acid (VII a) and 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-piperidone (III a), and some related compounds were synthesized as possible inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis. None of them was found effective on the synthesis of cholesterol in rat liver slices and on HMG-CoA reductase activity in vitro, but 4-hydroxy-4-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-piperidone (III b) raised high density lipoproteins (HDL) in normolipaemic rats.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed1996

Pyrraline ether crosslinks as a basis for protein crosslinking by the advanced Maillard reaction in aging and diabetes.

Pyrraline (epsilon 2-(formyl-5-hydroxymethyl-pyrrol-1-yl)-L- norleucine) is an advanced Maillard reaction product derived from the reaction of glucose with lysine amino group on proteins. Its presence in plasma and tissue proteins has been established by immunological and chromatographic methods. The purified preparation of pyrraline obtained from the reaction of glucose with lysine when stored at room temperature or at refrigeration turned pink in color, suggesting spontaneous formation of degradation products. These products were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and one of the products was isolated to purity. The structure of the compound was established to be a dipyrraline formed by an ether bond between two pyrraline molecules. This finding led us to investigate the reactivity of pyrraline with thiol and hydroxy amino acids. The hydroxy amino acids were in general nonreactive, except hydroxy lysine and hydroxy proline which formed minor condensation products. While the reaction of cysteine resulted in the formation of two distinct thioethers, the reaction of glutathione resulted in the formation of two major unidentified compounds which gradually degraded upon incubation. These data suggest that pyrraline formed in vivo can further react with other amino acids on proteins to form crosslinks, which may explain in part increased protein crosslinking associated with aging and diabetes.

Aging↗

PubMed1984

Citramalic acid in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with bacterial meningitis.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from uninfected patients and from patients with bacterial and viral meningitis was analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography, with use of a flame ionization detector, and by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The resulting profiles were consistent and reproducible. Hydroxy acids were the compounds found in greatest abundance in both normal and infected CSF. Control experiments to establish the sensitivity and efficiency of the extraction and derivatization methods are also presented. Constituents of CSF from patients with bacterial meningitis differed quantitatively and qualitatively from those of CSF from uninfected patients or patients with nonbacterial infections. CSF from seven of eight patients with bacterial meningitis contained citramalic acid, a compound not previously identified in either normal or infected CSF. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

P450BM-3: absolute configuration of the primary metabolites of palmitic acid.

P450BM-3, a catalytically self-sufficient, soluble bacterial P450, contains on the same polypeptide a heme domain and a reductase domain. P450BM-3 catalyzes the oxidation of short- and long-chain, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The three-dimensional structure of the heme domain both in the absence and in the presence of fatty acid substrates has been determined; however, the fatty acid in the substrate-bound form is not adequately close to the heme iron to permit a prediction regarding the stereoselectivity of oxidation. In the case of long-chain fatty acids, the products can also serve as substrate and be metabolized several times. In the current study, we have determined the absolute configuration of the three primary products of palmitic acid hydroxylation (15-, 14-, and 13-OH palmitic acid). While the 15- and 14-hydroxy compounds are produced in a highly stereoselective manner (98% R, 2% S), the 13-hydroxy is a mixture of 72% R and 28% S. We have also examined the binding of these three hydroxy acids to P450BM-3 and shown that only two of them (14-OH and 13-OH palmitic acid) can bind to and be further metabolized by P450BM-3. The results indicate that in contrast to the flexibility of palmitoleic acid bound to the oxidized enzyme, palmitic acid is rigidly bound in the active site during catalytic turnover.

Arachidonic Acid↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Metabolic fate of 2,2-dimethylbutyryl moiety of simvastatin in rats: identification of metabolites by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.

Metabolic pathways of simvastatin (MK-733), a lactone prodrug of an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase, were elucidated in male rats, using the [14C]-labelled compound. Evidence has been obtained for hydrolysis of simvastatin and its metabolites at their 2,2-dimethylbutyryl moieties. Metabolites identified in plasma were 2,2-dimethylbutyric acid (DMB), 2,2-dimethyl-3-hydroxybutyric acid (DMHB) and an open chain hydroxy acid of simvastatin: metabolites identified in urine were DMHB, a glucuronide and the glycine conjugate of DMB. They were characterized by gas chromatography/electron impact and chemical ionization mass spectrometry as phenacyl or pertrimethylsilylated derivatives. The structures of the metabolites and the aglycone of the glucuronide were confirmed as phenacyl esters by comparison of their chromatographic data and mass spectra with those of the phenacyl derivatives of authentic compounds.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Purification and characterization of 3-mercaptopyruvic acid S-conjugate reductases.

Three kinds of 3-mercaptopyruvic acid S-conjugate reductase (MPR-I, MPR-II and MPR-III) were purified from rat liver cytosol. These enzymes reduced 3-mercaptopyruvic acid S-conjugates derived from cysteine conjugates and some endogenous alpha-keto acids to the corresponding alpha-hydroxy acids in the presence of either NADH (for MPR-I and MPR-II) or NADPH (MPR-III), while simple aldehydes or ketones did not significantly induce substrate activity. The molecular weight of the present enzymes was about 80 kDa composed of two subunits of the same molecular weight. Km values of MPR-I, MPR-II and MPR-III were 0.38, 0.06 and 0.29 mM for S-(4-bromophenyl)-3-thiopyruvic acid, respectively, and 0.15 mM for NADH (MPR-I, MPR-II) and NADPH (MPR-III). Vmax values of MPR-I, MPR-II and MPR-III for this substrate were 5.3, 20 and 13 nmol/min/mg, respectively. The sulphydryl-modifying agents inhibited the enzyme activities of all the three reductases. Based on the properties including substrate selectivity for alpha-keto acids derived from aromatic amino acids, we assumed that MPR-II and aromatic alpha-keto acid reductase are the same enzyme, while enzymes similar to MPR-I and MPR-III have not been reported. From the viewpoints of metabolism of xenobiotics, these enzymes are likely to be important in biotransformation of cysteine conjugates to 3-mercaptolactic acid S-conjugates.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Characterization of lipids in complex samples using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

Most lipids are a complex mixture of classes of compounds such as fatty acids, fatty alcohols, diols, sterols and hydroxy acids. In this study, the suitability of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to a time-of-light mass spectrometer is studied for lipid characterization in complex samples. With lanolin, a refined wool wax, as test sample, it is demonstrated that combined methylation plus silylation is the preferred derivatization procedure to achieve (i) high-quality GC x GC separation and (ii) easily recognizable ordered structures in lipid analysis. Optimization of the GC x GC column combination, the influence of the temperature programme on the quality of the separation, and the potential and limitations of automated TOF-MS-based identification are discussed. The combined power of a 2D separation, ordered structures and MS detection is illustrated by the identification of several minor sample constituents.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry↗

PubMed1997

Ouabain-sensitive K(+)-dependent outward current caused by threo-beta-hydroxy-L-glutamic acid on a snail neuron.

1. An analog of L-glutamic acid, threo-beta-hydroxy-L-glutamic acid (threo-L-BHGA), was applied locally to the giant neuron of an Achatina snail by pneumatic brief pressure ejection and induced an outward current (Iout) on the ventral-left cerebral distinct neurone (v-LCDN). The present study aimed to elucidate the ionic mechanisms of the Iout caused by threo-L-BHGA (ItL-BHGA) of v-LCDN and the effects of ouabain on this current under voltage clamp. 2. The reversal potentials of ItL-BHGA (EtL-BHGA) of v-LCDN in varied K+o were fitted to the Nernst equation as ItL-BHGA = IK (K+ current) and were almost unchanged in Cl-o-free and Na+o-reduced (20% of normal) states. The ItL-BHGA is due to the increase in permeability of the neuromembrane to K+(K(+)-dependent) and is neither Na(+)- nor Cl-(-)-dependent. K(+)-channel blockers, a mixture of tetraethyl-ammonium (TEA) and 4-amino-pyridine (4-AP), blocked ItL-BHGA mainly in a noncompetitive and partly in an uncompetitive manner. 3. Unexpectedly, ItL-BHGA of v-LCDN was almost abolished in the Na+o-free state and significantly reduced in the Cl-o-free state. However, an Na(+)-channel blocker, tetrodotoxin, showed a tendency to enhance ItL-BHGA. On the other hand, ItL-BHGA was enhanced in K+o-free state. 4. Ouabain markedly inhibited ItL-BHGA in both noncompetitive and uncompetitive manners. Benzamil, an inhibitor of the Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange applied simultaneously with ouabain could not prevent ouabain inhibition on ItL-BHGA. The currents induced by other putative neurotransmitters, including a K(+)-dependent Iout caused by dopamine on v-LCDN, were not affected by ouabain. 5. According to our previous study, the threo-L-BHGA receptors are not linked with protein kinases or calmodulin. Then, ItL-BHGA could be produced by the receptor K+ channel complex or the receptor-G-protein-K+ channel combination. The present results indicate that the ATPase activity inhibited by ouabain and the presence of extracellular Na+ and Cl- are needed for threo-L-BHGA to activate the K(+)-dependent structure. Furthermore, the K+o-free state, which inactivates the Na(+)-K+ pump, and tetrodotoxin, which suppresses the Na+ channel at least partly, did not affect the structure to be activated.

4-Aminopyridine↗

PubMed2003

Synergistic pseudo-hydroxide extraction: synergism and anion selectivity in sodium extraction using a crown ether and a series of weak lipophilic acids.

The nature of the weak lipophilic acid used in synergistic combination with a model crown ether cation host was shown to have a strong effect on the strength and selectivity of sodium hydroxide separation from alkaline aqueous salt solutions. Sodium ion-pair extraction employing only cis-syn-cis-dicyclohexano-18-crown-6 (1) in nitrobenzene (NB) was correlated with the standard Gibbs energy (deltaG(p)o) of anion partitioning into NB and was notably weak and nonselective for the hydroxide ion, in accord with Hofmeister bias. The Hofmeister order can be selectively overcome for NaOH by utilization of acid-base chemistry coupled with complexation of sodium ion in the NB phase. Upon addition of a lipophilic organic acid into the solution of 1 in NB, sodium extraction was selectively enhanced due to the initiation of an exchange reaction between the aqueous sodium ion and the ionizable proton of the organic acid. A series of weak lipophilic hydroxy acids (HA) including fluorinated alcohols and phenols was tested. The resulting synergistic pseudo-hydroxide extraction correlates with the pKa of the employed HA; the most acidic cation exchangers provide the greatest synergism. The synergistic factor obtained using a fluorinated benzyl alcohol 7 was as high as 256. Ion-pair extraction of neutral sodium salts was not changed or only mildly enhanced by addition of HA into the NB solution of 1. This enhancement was explained by hydrogen bonding of HA with the anion as related to the hardness of the anion and the acidity of HA. In comparison with the synergism observed for NaOH, this enhancement was weak and unable to overcome the Hofmeister effect. Examination of extraction selectivity revealed that the combination of 1 and 7 preferentially extracted NaOH over all other sodium salts, including the normally preferred nitrate and perchlorate salts. Quantitative recovery of NaOH from the NB phase was demonstrated via hydrolysis of the organic acid upon a single contact of the loaded solvent with water.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

Kulokekahilide-1, a cytotoxic depsipeptide from the cephalaspidean mollusk Philinopsis speciosa.

The cytotoxic depsipeptide kulokekahilide-1, which contains two unusual amino acids, 4-phenylvaline and 3-amino-2-methylhexanoic acid, was isolated from the cephalaspidean mollusk Philinopsis speciosa. Structure elucidation of kulokekahilide-1 was carried out by spectroscopic analysis and chemical degradation. The absolute stereochemistry was determined by Marfey analysis for amino acids and chiral HPLC analysis for hydroxy acids. All four stereoisomers of 4-phenylvaline and 3-amino-2-methylhexanoic acid, which were necessary for Marfey analysis, were synthesized by use of the Heck reaction and Evans's method, respectively. Kulokekahilide-1 showed cytotoxicity against P388 murine leukemia cells with an IC(50) value of 2.1 microg/mL.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1997

Building Units for N-Backbone Cyclic Peptides. 3. Synthesis of Protected N(alpha)-(omega-Aminoalkyl)amino Acids and N(alpha)-(omega-Carboxyalkyl)amino Acids.

An improved synthesis of a family of amino acids that contain omega-aminoalkyl groups and of a new family containing omega-carboxyalkyl groups linked to the alpha-amine is described. The synthesis was performed by alkylation of suitably monoprotected alkylenediamines and protected omega-amino acids with triflates of alpha-hydroxy acid esters. The reaction proceeded with inversion of configuration yielding optically pure products. The N(alpha)-(omega-aminoalkyl)amino acids and N(alpha)-(omega-carboxyalkyl)amino acids were orthogonally protected to allow their incorporation into peptides by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) methodology.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1984

Suberin production by isolated tomato fruit protoplasts.

The multilamellar wall secreted by protoplasts isolated from locule tissue of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) fruit was purified, and an extract was obtained after depolymerization with BF(3)-methanol. Analysis of this extract using thin layer chromatography demonstrated the presence of fatty acid methyl esters, fatty alcohols, dicarboxylic acid dimethyl esters, and omega-hydroxy acid methyl esters. These components were quantified using an Iatroscan thin layer chromatography-flame ionization detection system. The different chain lengths in each group were identified and quantified using gas chromatography. The results clearly indicated the presence of suberin.

Journal Article↗